Abstract: Hindu civilization
represents one of the longest continuously evolving civilizations in human
history. Unlike civilizations that emerged around a single political empire,
ethnic identity, or religious founder, Hindu civilization developed organically
through the interaction of geography, spirituality, philosophy, social
institutions, scientific inquiry, artistic expression, and cultural adaptation.
Its roots extend from the ancient Indus-Saraswati cultural sphere through the
Vedic age, the Upanishadic period, the epic and Puranic traditions, the
classical age of philosophy and science, the temple-centered cultural
synthesis, the Bhakti movements, and the modern global revival of Yoga and
Vedanta.
This article examines the evolution
of Hindu civilization as a continuous civilizational process rather than a
series of disconnected historical periods. It explores how foundational
concepts such as Dharma, Karma, Atman, Brahman, and the pursuit of Moksha
provided enduring continuity while political structures, languages, artistic
forms, and social practices changed over time. The article also highlights the
contributions of Hindu civilization to philosophy, mathematics, astronomy,
medicine, literature, architecture, and spiritual thought, and explains why its
decentralized and adaptive character enabled it to survive major historical
disruptions.
Keywords: Hindu Civilization,
Sanatana Dharma, Indus-Saraswati Civilization, Vedic Civilization, Upanishads,
Indian Philosophy, Temple Culture, Bhakti Movement, Vedanta, Indian Science,
Cultural Continuity, Civilizational History
Introduction
Civilizations are often described
through the rise and fall of empires, military conquests, economic systems, and
political institutions. Such an approach is useful for understanding many
historical societies, but it does not fully explain the development of Hindu
civilization.
Hindu civilization was never
identified with a single ruling dynasty, one sacred language alone, one central
religious authority, or one historical founder. It emerged gradually through
the accumulated experiences of countless generations living across the Indian
subcontinent. Its continuity was maintained not primarily by political power,
but by the transmission of knowledge, values, rituals, philosophical ideas,
artistic traditions, and social institutions.
To understand the evolution of
Hindu civilization, one must therefore look beyond dynastic chronology.
The central questions are
different.
How did a civilization maintain
continuity for several millennia despite repeated political upheavals?
How did it preserve sacred texts
without printing technology for thousands of years?
How did it accommodate multiple
philosophical schools while retaining a shared civilizational identity?
How did regional diversity coexist
with cultural unity?
The answer lies in the unique
structure of Hindu civilization.
It combined permanence with
flexibility.
Certain foundational principles
remained remarkably stable:
·
Dharma
(ethical and cosmic order)
·
Karma
(moral causation)
·
Samsara
(cycle of birth and death)
·
Moksha
(liberation)
·
Reverence
for knowledge
·
Respect
for spiritual inquiry
·
Recognition
of multiple paths to truth
At the same time, languages,
rituals, artistic forms, political institutions, and social customs evolved
continuously.
The history of Hindu civilization
is therefore not a story of static tradition. It is the story of a civilization
that changed constantly while preserving its underlying worldview.
The
Indus-Saraswati Foundations
The earliest archaeological
foundations of Hindu civilization are associated with the Indus-Saraswati
civilization, which flourished roughly between 3300 BCE and 1900 BCE across a
vast region extending through present-day Pakistan and northwestern India.
Major urban centers included:
·
Mohenjo-daro
·
Harappa
·
Dholavira
·
Rakhigarhi
·
Kalibangan
·
Lothal
These settlements reveal an
extraordinarily sophisticated urban culture.
Archaeological evidence shows:
·
Planned
cities with grid layouts
·
Advanced
drainage systems
·
Standardized
weights and measures
·
Long-distance
trade networks
·
Skilled
metallurgy and craftsmanship
·
Large
water-management structures
One of the most striking features is the emphasis on water and ritual cleanliness. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro suggests that purification practices held significant cultural importance. This concern for ritual bathing later became a prominent feature of Hindu religious life, especially in pilgrimage traditions centered on sacred rivers.
Seals discovered at several sites
depict figures in meditative postures, animals associated with later Hindu
symbolism, and possible proto-Shiva imagery. Although direct identification
remains debated among scholars, these artifacts indicate that themes of
asceticism, fertility, animal symbolism, and sacred power were already present
in the cultural environment.
Equally important is what
archaeologists have not found.
There is little evidence of massive
royal palaces dominating the cities, suggesting that authority may have been
more distributed than in many contemporary civilizations.
The Indus-Saraswati world
eventually underwent major transformations due to environmental changes, shifts
in river systems, and broader economic developments. Yet many cultural
patterns, such as settlement continuity, agricultural practices, ritual
symbolism, and regional traditions, persisted into later Indian civilization.
Thus, the Indus-Saraswati
civilization should not be viewed as a completely separate and vanished
culture. It formed part of the deep historical foundation upon which later
Hindu civilization developed.
The Emergence of
Vedic Civilization
Following the decline of the major urban
centers, the next identifiable phase in the evolution of Hindu civilization is
represented by the Vedic tradition.
The Vedas occupy a unique position
because they are regarded not merely as ancient literature but as the
foundational source of sacred knowledge. Traditionally they are considered
Apaurusheya, meaning "not of human origin," indicating that the
truths they contain were realized by seers rather than invented by authors.
The four Vedas are:
·
Rigveda
·
Yajurveda
·
Samaveda
·
Atharvaveda
For centuries, they were preserved
entirely through oral transmission.
Students memorized every syllable
under the guidance of their teachers. Complex recitation methods ensured
extraordinary accuracy. Modern scholars have recognized this oral tradition as
one of the greatest achievements of human memory and linguistic preservation.
The Vedic worldview introduced
several ideas that became permanent features of Hindu civilization.
Rta: The Cosmic
Order
The universe was understood as
governed by an underlying order called Ṛta.
This order operated:
·
In
nature
·
In
morality
·
In
society
·
In
ritual
·
In
human conduct
Later, the concept of Dharma
emerged as a broader and more developed expression of this principle.
Yajna and
Interdependence
Vedic ritual was not merely ceremonial.
It symbolized reciprocity between:
·
Humans
·
Nature
·
Society
·
The
Divine
The idea that life depends upon
cooperation rather than exploitation became a recurring civilizational theme.
Sacred Speech
The Vedic tradition placed immense
importance on Vak (sacred speech).
Language was regarded as a vehicle
of truth, power, and knowledge. This reverence for language later contributed
to the development of Sanskrit grammar, literature, philosophy, and scientific
discourse.
The Vedic period therefore laid the
intellectual and spiritual foundations of Hindu civilization.
It established:
·
A
sacred textual tradition
·
The
Guru-Shishya system of education
·
Concepts
of cosmic order
·
Ritual
culture
·
Philosophical
inquiry
·
Respect
for knowledge
These elements would continue to
evolve for millennia.
From Ritual to
Philosophy: The Upanishadic Transformation
As Vedic thought matured, attention
gradually shifted from external ritual toward inner understanding.
This transformation is reflected in
the Aranyakas and reaches its highest expression in the Upanishads.
The central questions changed
dramatically.
·
What
is the ultimate reality?
·
Who
am I beyond the body and mind?
·
What
is consciousness?
·
What
happens after death?
·
Can
truth be directly experienced?
The Upanishadic sages proposed that
the deepest reality is Brahman, and the essence of the individual is Atman.
One of the most famous declarations
is:
तत्त्वमसि — Tat Tvam Asi —
'That Thou Art.'
Another is:
अहं ब्रह्मास्मि — Aham BrahmAsmi
— 'I am Brahman.'
These teachings transformed Indian
civilization.
Spirituality was no longer
understood solely through ritual participation.
Self-knowledge became central.
The Upanishadic revolution produced
several enduring civilizational consequences:
·
Development
of metaphysical philosophy
·
Emphasis
on meditation and contemplation
·
Recognition
of direct spiritual experience
·
Acceptance
of renunciation as a valid life path
·
Exploration
of consciousness
Importantly, the Upanishads did not
reject the Vedas.
They interpreted their deeper
meaning.
Thus, continuity was preserved even
as the focus of civilization expanded from ritual order to philosophical
inquiry.
Social
Institutions and the Fourfold Framework
As civilization became more
complex, Hindu society developed institutions intended to organize life while
remaining connected to Dharma.
The Four Asramas
Life was conceptualized in four
stages:
•
Brahmacharya:
education and discipline
•
Gṛhastha:
household life and social responsibility
•
VAnaprastha:
gradual withdrawal from active worldly duties
•
SannyAsa:
renunciation and spiritual pursuit
This framework acknowledged that
human life has multiple dimensions:
•
Learning
•
Family
•
Society
•
Spirituality
The Varna Ideal
Early texts describe society in
terms of functional categories related to knowledge, governance, commerce, and
service.
While historical caste practices
became far more complex and often rigid, the original ideal was connected to
social functions and responsibilities rather than simply birth-based hierarchy.
The evolution of these institutions
demonstrates an important characteristic of Hindu civilization: it attempted to
integrate spiritual ideals with practical social organization.
The Age of
Kingdoms and Mahajanapadas
By the first millennium BCE, large
political entities known as Mahajanapadas emerged across northern India.
This period saw:
•
Urban
revival
•
Trade
expansion
•
Coinage
•
Political
competition
•
Intellectual
ferment
Cities became centers of:
•
Learning
•
Commerce
•
Debate
•
Religious
experimentation
Numerous philosophical movements
appeared, including:
•
Early
Hindu schools
•
Buddhism
•
Jainism
•
Materialist
traditions
•
Skeptical
traditions
Rather than suppressing debate,
Indian civilization generally encouraged it.
Public philosophical discussions
were common.
Truth was expected to withstand
examination.
This culture of intellectual
pluralism became one of the defining features of Hindu civilization.
The Epic Synthesis
The philosophical ideas of the
Upanishads were profound but difficult for the broader population. The great
epics translated abstract principles into human experience.
The Ramayana
The Ramayana explores:
•
Duty
•
Family
loyalty
•
Ethical
leadership
•
Sacrifice
•
Devotion
Rama became an ideal not because he
was free from difficulty, but because he acted according to Dharma under
difficult circumstances.
The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata examines:
•
Moral
ambiguity
•
Political
ethics
•
Justice
•
Responsibility
•
Human
weakness
Within it appears the Bhagavad
Gita, one of the most influential texts in world literature.
The Gita performed a remarkable synthesis.
It harmonized:
•
Action
and contemplation
•
Knowledge
and devotion
•
Duty
and detachment
•
Worldly
life and spiritual liberation
Rather than demanding withdrawal
from society, it taught that ordinary life can become a path of spiritual
growth when guided by right understanding.
The epics therefore transformed
Hindu civilization from an elite philosophical culture into a civilization
whose ideals were embedded in popular memory, storytelling, education, and daily
life.
The Puranic and
Temple Age
After the epic period, the Puranas
became major vehicles for transmitting civilizational knowledge.
They used:
•
Narratives
•
Symbolism
•
Cosmology
•
Genealogies
•
Sacred
geography
•
Devotional
literature
This era witnessed the rise of
temple civilization.
Temples were not merely places of
worship.
They functioned as:
•
Educational
institutions
•
Economic
centers
•
Employers
of artisans
•
Preservers
of music and dance
•
Libraries
•
Community
gathering spaces
Different regions developed distinctive
traditions:
•
Shaiva
•
Vaishnava
•
Shakta
•
Ganapatya
•
Saura
Yet shared concepts such as Dharma,
Karma, Moksha, pilgrimage, sacred texts, and reverence for the Divine
maintained cultural unity.
This period demonstrates the
extraordinary ability of Hindu civilization to express common principles
through diverse regional forms.
Science,
Knowledge, and Classical Achievement
One of the most misunderstood
aspects of Hindu civilization is the separation often made between spirituality
and intellectual achievement.
In reality, classical Indian
civilization produced significant advances in many fields.
Mathematics
Indian mathematicians developed:
•
The
decimal place-value system
•
The
concept of zero
•
Advanced
arithmetic and algebra
•
Trigonometric
methods
These ideas later spread globally
and became fundamental to modern mathematics.
Astronomy
Texts associated with scholars such
as:
•
Aryabhata
•
Varahamihira
•
Bhaskara
contain sophisticated discussions
of planetary motion, eclipses, and mathematical astronomy.
Medicine
The Ayurvedic tradition,
represented by:
•
Charaka
•
Sushruta
developed extensive knowledge of
anatomy, surgery, pharmacology, diet, and preventive health.
Linguistics
Paṇini's grammar of Sanskrit
remains one of the most precise linguistic analyses ever produced.
The pursuit of knowledge was
considered a sacred activity.
Thus, science, philosophy, and
spirituality evolved within a common civilizational framework rather than in isolated
compartments.
The Bhakti
Transformation
From the early medieval period
onward, the Bhakti movement became one of the most powerful forces shaping
Hindu civilization.
Saints across India expressed
spiritual truths in regional languages.
Examples include:
•
Alvars
and Nayanmars in Tamil Nadu
•
Basava
in Karnataka
•
Jnaneshwar
and Tukaram in Maharashtra
•
Mirabai
in Rajasthan
•
Surdas
and Tulsidas in North India
•
Chaitanya
in Bengal
Bhakti emphasized:
•
Personal
relationship with the Divine
•
Accessibility
of spiritual life
•
Importance
of sincerity over status
•
Use
of music, poetry, and devotion
A celebrated verse from the
Bhagavad Gita captures this spirit:
पत्रं पुष्पं फलं तोयं यो मे भक्त्या प्रयच्छति - 'Whoever offers
Me a leaf, a flower, a fruit, or water with devotion, I accept that loving
offering.' (Bhagavad Gita 9.26)
Bhakti democratized spirituality.
It integrated philosophy with
everyday life and helped preserve Hindu civilization during periods of
political instability.
Medieval
Challenges and Cultural Resilience
From the second millennium onward,
large parts of the Indian subcontinent experienced repeated invasions,
political conflicts, and the destruction of many educational and temple
institutions.
Yet Hindu civilization survived.
Why?
Because it was decentralized.
Its continuity did not depend upon:
•
One
church
•
One
capital city
•
One
priestly hierarchy
•
One
political authority
Knowledge survived through:
•
Families
•
Temples
•
Monasteries
•
Ascetic
orders
•
Village
teachers
•
Oral
traditions
Pilgrimage networks connected
distant regions.
Festivals reinforced shared
identity.
Sacred texts continued to be
memorized and transmitted.
The resilience of Hindu
civilization lay in its distributed cultural structure.
The Classical
Acharyas and Philosophical Consolidation
As Hindu civilization expanded
geographically and intellectually, the need arose to organize its vast
philosophical heritage into coherent systems that could be studied, debated,
and transmitted across generations. This task was undertaken by a succession of
extraordinary philosophers known as the Acharyas, whose works shaped the
intellectual foundations of Hindu civilization for centuries.
The Acharyas did not establish new
religions. Rather, they interpreted the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and
Brahma Sutras according to different philosophical perspectives while remaining
firmly rooted in the authority of the Shruti.
Among these teachers, Adi
Shankaracharya occupies a unique position. During the eighth century CE, he
travelled extensively across the Indian subcontinent, engaging scholars in
philosophical dialogue and reviving Vedic learning at a time when numerous
competing traditions had emerged. His commentaries on the principal Upanishads,
the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutras established Advaita Vedanta, which
teaches the essential non-duality of Atman and Brahman.
Shankaracharya also established
four principal monasteries (Mathas) in the four corners of India. These
institutions became enduring centres of scholarship and spiritual education, reinforcing
cultural unity across distant regions.
Following him, Ramanujacharya
developed the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita, or qualified non-dualism. While
accepting the unity of ultimate reality, he emphasized the eternal relationship
between the individual soul and the Supreme. His interpretation integrated
rigorous philosophy with loving devotion, making spiritual practice accessible
to householders as well as scholars.
Later, Madhvacharya expounded
Dvaita Vedanta, maintaining a clear distinction between God, individual souls,
and the material universe. His system reinforced devotional theism while
preserving logical consistency and scriptural authority.
Other influential teachers,
including Nimbarka, Vallabhacharya, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, and numerous regional
scholars, enriched Hindu thought through additional interpretations of Vedanta.
The coexistence of these diverse
philosophical schools illustrates one of the defining characteristics of Hindu
civilization.
Intellectual disagreement did not
necessarily produce division.
Instead, multiple viewpoints were
accepted within a shared civilizational framework.
The pursuit of truth was considered
more important than enforcing uniformity.
This remarkable openness enabled
Hindu civilization to preserve both philosophical diversity and cultural
cohesion.
Hindu Civilization
under Colonial Rule
The arrival of European colonial
powers marked one of the most significant turning points in the history of
Hindu civilization. Political sovereignty gradually passed into foreign hands,
while new educational systems, legal institutions, and intellectual frameworks
reshaped Indian society.
Western scholars introduced methods
of historical criticism, archaeology, philology, and comparative religion. Many
of these studies contributed positively to the understanding of India's ancient
literature, languages, and history. Sanskrit manuscripts were collected,
edited, translated, and published, making them accessible to scholars
throughout the world.
At the same time, colonial interpretations
often viewed Hindu civilization through conceptual frameworks developed for
entirely different historical and religious traditions. Complex philosophical
ideas were sometimes reduced to simplistic descriptions, while the diversity
and continuity of Sanatana Dharma were not always fully appreciated.
English education produced a new
generation of Indians familiar with both classical Indian learning and modern
Western thought. This encounter created challenges but also stimulated a
profound intellectual reawakening.
Many Indian thinkers began to
reinterpret their own civilizational heritage in the light of contemporary
questions concerning science, education, social reform, and national identity.
Among the most influential figures
was Swami Vivekananda, whose address at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago
in 1893 introduced Vedantic philosophy to a global audience. He presented Hindu
civilization not merely as an ancient religious tradition but as a universal
philosophy founded upon tolerance, rational inquiry, and the spiritual unity of
humanity.
Dayananda Saraswati emphasized a
return to the authority of the Vedas and advocated educational reform and
social renewal.
Sri Aurobindo interpreted Indian
civilization as an evolving spiritual experiment that sought the progressive
development of human consciousness.
Mahatma Gandhi drew inspiration
from the Bhagavad Gita, the Upanishads, and the principle of Ahimsa in shaping
his philosophy of non-violent resistance.
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
presented Indian philosophy to the academic world with remarkable clarity,
demonstrating that Hindu civilization possessed one of the richest
philosophical traditions in human history.
The colonial period therefore
became not merely an era of political domination but also a period of
civilizational self-reflection and renewal.
The Global
Expansion of Hindu Civilization
During the twentieth and
twenty-first centuries, Hindu civilization entered a new phase of global
influence.
Migration carried Indian
communities to every continent. Temples, cultural associations, educational
institutions, and spiritual organizations were established throughout Asia,
Europe, Africa, North America, Australia, and South America.
What had once been largely confined
to the Indian subcontinent gradually became part of international intellectual
and cultural discourse.
Among the many contributions of
Hindu civilization, Yoga achieved perhaps the widest recognition.
Initially introduced in many
countries as a system of physical discipline, Yoga increasingly came to be
appreciated for its deeper philosophical foundations. Meditation, ethical
living, breath regulation, concentration, and self-awareness are now studied
not only within spiritual communities but also in medicine, psychology,
education, neuroscience, and public health.
Similarly, Ayurveda has attracted
growing international interest as a holistic system of healthcare emphasizing
balance, prevention, and harmony between body, mind, and environment.
The Bhagavad Gita, the Upanishads,
the Yoga Sutras, and numerous other classical works have been translated into
dozens of languages, allowing readers across the world to engage directly with
Hindu philosophical thought.
Universities now offer courses on
Sanskrit, Indian philosophy, comparative religion, Yoga studies, and South
Asian civilization. International conferences regularly examine Hindu
contributions to ethics, ecology, consciousness studies, and intercultural
dialogue.
Unlike many ideological systems,
Hindu civilization has generally expanded through education, scholarship,
cultural exchange, and personal practice rather than organized conversion.
Its influence rests primarily upon
the universal appeal of its ideas.
The Secret of
Civilizational Continuity
One question naturally arises.
How has Hindu civilization survived
for more than five thousand years while many equally advanced ancient
civilizations disappeared?
No single explanation is
sufficient, yet several factors appear especially significant.
The first is the distinction
between eternal principles and changing practices.
The fundamental concepts of Dharma,
Karma, Atman, Brahman, and Moksha remained constant, while social institutions,
artistic styles, political systems, and cultural expressions adapted to changing
historical circumstances.
The second factor is the
Guru-Shishya Parampara.
Knowledge was transmitted directly
from teacher to student across countless generations. This decentralized
educational system preserved scriptures, rituals, philosophical insights, and
practical disciplines even during periods of political instability.
The third factor is the
extraordinary respect accorded to knowledge itself.
Learning was regarded as sacred.
The search for truth occupied a
central place within Hindu civilization. Debate, discussion, contemplation, and
philosophical diversity were encouraged rather than suppressed.
The fourth factor is the
integration of spirituality with everyday life.
Hindu civilization does not confine
spiritual practice to temples or religious ceremonies. It extends to family
relationships, education, agriculture, architecture, music, dance, festivals,
environmental ethics, governance, and daily conduct.
Because spirituality permeates
ordinary life, the civilization possesses a resilience that purely
institutional structures often lack.
Finally, Hindu civilization has
continually renewed itself through saints, philosophers, poets, reformers,
teachers, and ordinary practitioners who interpreted timeless truths in forms
appropriate to their own age.
Renewal occurred without abandoning
continuity.
Lessons for the
Modern World
The long evolution of Hindu
civilization offers several lessons that remain highly relevant in the
contemporary world.
The first is that continuity does
not require rigidity.
A civilization survives not by
resisting every change but by preserving its essential principles while
adapting its external forms to new circumstances.
The second lesson concerns
intellectual freedom.
Throughout its history, Hindu
civilization accommodated numerous philosophical schools, methods of worship,
and spiritual disciplines without demanding absolute uniformity. Diversity was
often viewed as an opportunity for deeper understanding rather than a threat to
social cohesion.
A third lesson is the importance of
ethical responsibility.
Political institutions, economic
systems, and social structures have changed repeatedly over the centuries. Yet
the emphasis upon Dharma, truthfulness, compassion, self-discipline,
generosity, and personal responsibility has continued to provide moral
direction.
The fourth lesson is the
inseparable relationship between education and civilization.
The preservation of the Vedas
through oral transmission, the establishment of centres of learning such as
Takshashila and Nalanda, the composition of commentaries, and the continuation
of the Guru-Shishya tradition demonstrate that civilizations endure through the
transmission of knowledge as much as through material prosperity.
Finally, Hindu civilization reminds
humanity that science, philosophy, ethics, art, and spirituality need not exist
in isolation. Indian civilization developed these disciplines together within a
broader vision of human development that sought harmony between material
progress and inner growth.
In an age increasingly
characterized by fragmentation, this integrated worldview offers valuable
insights for addressing global challenges.
Conclusion
The evolution of Hindu civilization
cannot be understood merely as the political history of the Indian subcontinent.
It is the story of one of humanity's most enduring civilizational traditions,
rooted in timeless spiritual principles while continuously adapting to changing
historical circumstances.
Beginning with the cultural
foundations of the Indus-Saraswati civilization, enriched by the spiritual
vision of the Vedas, deepened through the philosophical inquiry of the
Upanishads, illustrated by the ethical teachings of the Ramayana and
Mahabharata, expanded through the Puranas and temple traditions, systematized
by the great Acharyas, revitalized by the Bhakti movement, and renewed during
the modern era, Hindu civilization has demonstrated an extraordinary capacity
for continuity within change.
Unlike civilizations defined solely
by political power, Hindu civilization has always drawn its strength from
knowledge, spiritual inquiry, ethical living, and cultural resilience. Its
decentralized structure enabled it to withstand invasions, political
fragmentation, colonial domination, and rapid social transformation without
losing its essential identity.
Today, its influence extends far
beyond the geographical boundaries of India. Yoga, Vedanta, Ayurveda,
meditation, Sanskrit studies, and the philosophy of Dharma continue to inspire
millions of people across the world. Yet the significance of Hindu civilization
lies not merely in its antiquity or global reach, but in its enduring
commitment to the pursuit of truth, harmony, self-knowledge, and the welfare of
all beings.
The evolution of Hindu civilization
therefore remains an ongoing process rather than a completed chapter of
history. It continues to invite every generation to rediscover ancient wisdom
while responding creatively to the challenges of the modern world.
Suggested Reading
•
Rigveda
•
Yajurveda
•
Samaveda
•
Atharvaveda
•
Principal
Upanishads
•
Ramayana
•
Mahabharata
•
Bhagavad
Gita
•
Manusmriti
(for historical study)
•
Arthashastra
- Kautilya
•
The
Discovery of India - Jawaharlal Nehru
•
The
Hindu View of Life - Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
•
Indian
Philosophy (Volumes I & II) - Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
•
The
Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda
•
A
History of Ancient and Early Medieval India - Upinder Singh
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