A matha or mutt is a Sanskrit word that means "cloister,
institute or college", and it also refers to a monastery in Hinduism.
Monastic life, for spiritual studies or the pursuit of moksha (spiritual
liberation) traces its roots to the 1st millennium BCE, in the Vedic tradition.
The earliest Hindu monasteries (mathas) are indirectly inferred to be
from the centuries around the start of the Common Era, based on the existence
of Sannyasa Upanishads with strongly Advaita Vedanta content. The matha
tradition in Hinduism was likely well established in the second half of 1st
millennium CE, as is evidenced by archeological and epigraphical evidence.
Mathas grew over time, with the most famous and still surviving centers of
Vedanta studies being those started by Adi Shankara. Other major and
influential mathas belong to various schools of Hindu philosophy, such
as those of Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The monastery host and feed students,
sannyasis (monks, renouncers, ascetics), gurus and are led by Acharyas.
These monasteries are sometimes attached to Hindu temples and have their codes
of conduct, initiation and election ceremonies. The mathas in the Hindu
tradition have not been limited to religious studies, and historical evidence
suggest that they were centers for diverse studies such as medieval medicine,
grammar and music.
The term matha is also used for monastery in Jainism, and the earliest
monasteries near Jain temples are dated to be from about the 5th-century CE.
A matha refers to "cloister, institute or college", and in
some contexts refers to "hut of an ascetic, monk or renunciate" or
temple for studies. The root of the word is math, which means
"inhabit" or "to grind".
The roots of monastic life are traceable in the Vedic literature, which
states Jacobi likely predates Buddhism and Jainism. According to Hermann
Jacobi, Max Muller, Hermann Oldenberg and other scholars, the Jainism and
Buddhism traditions adopted the five precepts first developed in the
Vedic-Brahmanical traditions for monk life:
1. Do not injure
living beings
2. Be truthful
3. Never take
anyone's property
4. Self-restaint
(continence)
5. Be liberal
However, in 20th century, scholars such as Richard Garbe suggested that the
pre-Upanishad Vedic tradition may not have had a monastic tradition, and that
the Upanishads, Jainism and Buddhism may have been new movements that grew,
partly in opposition, on the foundations and ideas of earlier Vedic practices.
The asceticism and monastic practices possibly emerged in India in the early
centuries of the 1st millennium BCE. Johannes Bronkhorst has proposed a dual
model, wherein monastic traditions and matha began in parallel, both in Vedic
and non-Vedic streams of traditions, citing evidence from ancient Hindu
Dharmasutras dated to have been composed between 500 BCE to about the start of
the Common Era. Other evidence of mathas is found in the Brahmanas layer
of the Vedic texts, such as in chapter 10.6 of Shatapatha Brahmana (Yajurveda)
as well as in the surviving Aranyaka layer of the Vedas such as in chapter 15
of Shankhayana Aranyaka.
Scholars such as Patrick Olivelle state that the history of Hindu
monasteries played a role in the composition of the Sannyasa Upanishads of
Hinduism. Six of these Upanishads were composed before the 3rd-century CE,
probably starting sometime in the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE.
These six Sannyasa Upanishads are Aruni Upanishad, Kundika Upanishad,
Kathashruti Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Jabala Upanishad and Brahma
Upanishad.
The oldest Sannyasa Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta outlook, and
these pre-date Adi Shankara. Most of the Sannyasa Upanishads present a Yoga and
nondualism (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy. This may be, states Patrick Olivelle,
because major Hindu monasteries (matha) belonged to the Advaita Vedanta
tradition. Almost all medieval Sannyasa Upanishads are also Advaita Vedantin
because of these monasteries. The only significant exception is the
12th-century Shatyayaniya Upanishad, which presents qualified dualistic and
Vaishnavism (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) philosophy and is likely linked to a
Vaishnavism monastery.
In addition to the Upanishads, evidence of matha tradition in
Hinduism is found in other genre of its literature, such as chapter 12.139 of
the Mahabharata and section 3.1 of Baudhayana Dharmasutras. Matha-s were
regionally known by other terms, such as Ghatika-s and Khandika-s.
The oldest verifiable Ghatika for Vedic studies, from inscription
evidence is in Kanchi, from the 4th-century CE.
The matha tradition of Hinduism attracted royal patronage,
attracting endowments to support studies, and these endowments established,
states Hartmut Scharfe, what may be "the earliest case on record of a
university scholarship". Some of these medieval era mathas of
Hinduism in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, were for Vedanta
studies, but some mathas from the 700 to 1000 CE period predominantly
focussed on Shaivism, Vaishnavism, military, martial arts, music, painting or
other fields of knowledge including subjects related to Buddhism and Jainism.
There is evidence, states Hartmut Scharfe, of mathas in eastern and
northern India from 7th century CE onwards, such as those in Kashmir, Uttar
Pradesh particularly in the Hindu holy city of Kashi, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and
Odisha, but these are not from ancient temple inscriptions, but implied from traveler records (Chinese) who visited these regions.
Brahmins were likely involved in the education and oral culture of textual
transmission in ancient India through the gurukul tradition, but
inscription evidence collected by E. Hultzsch suggests that at least some matha
attached to temples were dominated by non-Brahmins by the early 2nd millennium
CE.
The mathas and attached temples routinely hosted debating, Vedic
recital and student competitions, and these were part of community festivals in
the history of South Asia. These mathas were also the centers where many
new texts were composed, as well as the libraries and repository of ancient and
medieval manuscripts, where the old texts were preserved and decaying copies
replaced over the centuries. Some scholars such as the 8th-century Adi Shankara
who established four major mathas in different regions of India, stated
in the founding documents that the respective responsibility of the mathas was
to preserve one Veda each. Some Hindu monasteries offered hospice care for
pilgrims and various forms of assistance to their local communities.
According to Kenneth G. Zysk – a professor specializing in Indology and
ancient medicine, Hindu mathas and temples – like Buddhist monasteries –
had by the 10th-century attached medical care along with their religious and
educational roles. This is evidenced by various inscriptions found in Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about 930 CE states the
provision of a physician to two matha to care for the sick and
destitute. Similarly, a stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh dated to about 1262
CE mentions the provision of a prasutishala (maternity house), vaidya
(physician), an arogyashala (health house) and a viprasattra
(kitchen) with the religious center where people from all social background
could be fed and cared for.
The matha is a monastery, often with numerous students, many
teachers and an institutionalized structure to help sustain and maintain its
daily operations. Their organization is more sophisticated than an Ashrama
or Gurukul which is usually boutique and caters to a smaller group of
students. A matha, like a college, designates teaching, administrative
and community interaction functions, with prefix or suffix to names, with
titles such as Guru, Acharya, Swami and others. In
Lingayat Shaiva mathas for example, teachers are Gurus, the
administrative functions the responsibilities of Acharyas, and the community
relations of Swami. A similar organization is found in Vaishnava mathas.
Acharya
The word Acharya in Hindu monastic tradition refers to either a Guru
of high rank, or more often to the leader of a monastery and sampradaya
(teaching institution, denomination). This position typically involves a
ceremonial initiation called diksha by the monastery, where the earlier
leader anoints the successor as Acharya.
In large denominations that ran a collection of historical monasteries, an Acharya
may refer to the leader of a regional monastery school operated in that
denomination. Alternate titles of the heads of Hindu monasteries are Jeer,
Jiyar or Ciyar. The chief of a collection of large Hindu
monasteries in a sampradaya has been sometimes referred to as Jagad
guru.
Guru
The matha host not only students but many Guru. A Guru,
in Hindu tradition, is someone who is a "teacher, guide or master" of
certain knowledge. He or she is someone more than a teacher, traditionally a
reverential figure to the student, with the guru serving as a
"counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much
as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who
helps in the spiritual evolution of a student." The term also refers to
someone who primarily is one's spiritual guide, who helps one to discover the
same potentialities that the guru has already realized. The guru
concept is traceable to ancient Vedic times, found in traditional schools as
well as a matha.
The oldest references to the concept of guru are found in the
earliest Vedic texts of Hinduism. The guru, and gurukul – a
school run by guru, were an established tradition in India by the 1st
millennium BCE, and these helped compose and transmit the various Vedas, the
Upanishads, texts of various schools of Hindu philosophy, and post-Vedic
Shastras ranging from spiritual knowledge to various arts. The mathas
hosted these teachers and their students as they pursued their studies.
By about mid-1st millennium CE, archaeological and epigraphical
evidence suggest numerous larger institutions of gurus existed in India,
some near Hindu temples, where guru-shishya tradition helped preserve, create
and transmit various fields of knowledge. The first epigraphical evidence of a
Shaiva matha, for example, dates to around 800 CE, which was attached to
a temple. It hosted scholars and students for theosophical studies.Another
inscription from about 1100 CE, states Hartmut Scharfe, attests that a matha
was the center of medieval medical studies (Charaka Samhita) and of Vedic
grammar in Tamil Nadu.
Mathas in Hindu
traditions
Vaishnavism
Dvaita Mathas
Madhvacharya, the founder of Dvaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy,
studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery like Ramanuja, then disagreed with
Advaita, launched theistic Dvaita school of Vedanta interpretation, then
established eight mathas (monasteries) in Udupi by early 13th century.
These are referred to as Madhva mathas, or Ashta Mathas of Udupi,
and include Palimaru matha, Adamaru matha, Krishnapura matha, Puttige Matha,
Shirur matha, Sodhe matha, Kaniyooru matha and Pejavara matha. These eight surround
the Anantheswara Krishna Hindu temple. The matha are laid out in a
rectangle, the temples on a square grid pattern. The monks in the matha are
sannyasis, and the tradition of their studies and succession (Paryaya
system) were established by Madhvacharya.
There are Madhva mathas set up all over India. Including those in Udupi,
there are twenty four Madhva mathas in India. The main center of Madhva's
tradition is in Karnataka. The monastery has a pontiff system that rotates
after a fixed period of time. The pontiff is called Swamiji, and he
leads daily Krishna prayers according to Madhva tradition, as well as annual
festivals. The process and Vedic mantra rituals for Krishna worship in Dvaita
monasteries follow the procedure written by Madhvacharya in Tantrasara.
The succession ceremony in Dvaita school involves the outgoing Swamiji
welcoming the incoming one, then walking together to the icon of Madhvacharya
at the entrance of Krishna temple in Udupi, offering water to him, expressing
reverence then handing over the same vessel with water that Madhvacharya used
when he handed over the leadership of the monastery he founded.
The monastery include kitchens, bhojan-shala, run by monks and
volunteers. These serve food daily to nearly 3,000 to 4,000 monks, students and
visiting pilgrims without social discrimination. During succession ceremonies,
over 10,000 people are served a vegetarian meal by Udupi bhojan-shalas.
Other Dvaita Mathas include:
·
Kashi Math, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
·
Gokarna Math, Poinguinim, Canacona, Goa
·
Uttaradi Matha
·
Raghavendra Swami Matha
·
Vyasaraja Matha (Sosale)
Sri Vaishnava Mathas
Ramanuja, the Sri Vaishnavism philosopher, studied at an Advaita Vedanta
monastery with Yadava Prakasha before disagreeing with Advaita idealism, and
launching his Vishishtadvaita (qualified Advaita) philosophy. Ramanuja was
nominated as the leader of the Srirangam matha, after the death of
Yamunacharya, though they never met. Along with his philosophy, Ramanuja is
famous for his organizational skills and the lasting institutional reforms he
introduced at Srirangam paralleling those at Advaita monasteries of his time.
He also travelled and founded many Sri Vaishnavism mathas across India.
The Sri Vaishnavism tradition believes that Ramanuja started 700 mathas, but
historical evidence suggests several of these were started later.
The Sri Vaishnavism mathas over time, subdivided into two, those with
Tenkalai (southern) tradition and Vadakalai (northern) tradition of Sri
Vaishnavism. The Tenkalai-associated mathas are headquartered at Srirangam,
while Vadakalai mathas are associated with Kanchipuram. Both these traditions
have from 10th-century onwards considered the function of mathas to
include feeding the poor and devotees who visit, hosting marriages and
community festivals, farming temple lands and flower gardens as a source for
food and worship ingredients, being open to pilgrims as rest houses, and this
philanthropic role of these Hindu monasteries continues. In the 15th-century,
these monasteries expanded by establishing Ramanuja-kuta in major South
Indian Sri Vaishnavism locations.
Some Srivaishnavism monasteries include:
·
Melukote – matha founded by Ramanuja
·
Srirangam – Tenkalai Srivaishnavism matha
·
Vanamamalai – Tenkalai Srivaishnavism matha
·
Tirukkurungudi – Tenkalai Srivaishnavism matha
·
Kanchipuram – Vadakalai Srivaishnavism matha
·
Ahobila – Vadakalai Srivaishnavism matha
·
Parakala – Vadakalai Srivaishnavism matha
Nimbarka Vaishnava Mathas
Nimbarka, a scholar variously dated to be from 11th to 13th century,
proposed a compromise that was inclusive of all Vedanta schools, stating that
everyone is right, that truth is simultaneously Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and
Dvaita at the same time, calling his philosophy as Dvaitadvaita or Bhedabheda
system. He moved to Vrindavan-Mathura, and launched a matha centered
around loving devotion to Radha-Krishna (Radheshyam) worship. This group
emphasized togetherness of community, public singing and constant bhakti. The Mathas
of this group are:
·
Kathia Baba ka Sthaan at Vrindavan
·
Nimbarkacharya Peeth at Salemabad, Rajasthan
·
Ukhra Mahanta Asthal at Ukhra, West Bengal
·
Howrah Nimbarka Ashram at Howrah
Ramanandi Vaishnava Mathas
Ramananda was a 14th-century Vaishnava devotional poet sant of Bhakti
movement, in the Ganges river region of Northern India. He studied in an
Advaita Vedanta monastery, joined the Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnavism tradition,
then proceeded to start god Rama-based Vaishnavism movement from Hindu holy
city of Varanasi.The Hindu tradition recognizes him as the founder of the
Ramanandi Sampradaya, the largest monastic Hindu renunciant community in modern
times. The monasteries of these ascetics are found particularly in the northern
and western states of India, in Nepal, but they are also found as wandering
monks.
The largest mathas of the Ramanandi tradition are in Ayodhya and
Varanasi, and Ramanandi monks are also known as Bairagis or Vairagis
(literally, detached ones), their groups called Akharas. The Ramanandi mathas
are historically notable for being part of warrior ascetics movement in
medieval India, where monks metamorphosed into a militant group, trained in
arms, rebelled against Islamic rule and at times cooperated with the British
colonial officials as mercenaries.
Known for his egalitarian views in a time of political uncertainty and
Hindu-Islam conflicts, Ramananda and his matha accepted disciples without
discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion (he accepted
Muslims). Traditional scholarship holds that his disciples included later
Bhakti movement poet-sants such as Kabir, Ravidas, Bhagat Pipa and
others, however some postmodern scholars have questioned some of this spiritual
lineage while others have supported this lineage with historical evidence. His
ideas also influenced the founding of Sikhism in 15th century, and his
teachings are included in the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib. Adhyatma
Ramayana is a key text of this matha.
Other Vaishnava Mathas
·
Yadugiri Yathiraja Matha
·
Gaudiya Matha
·
Narasingha Chaitanya Matha
·
Sree Rama Dasa Matha, Chenkottukonam,
Thiruvananthapuram
·
Bhubaneswar Matha
Shaivism
Shaiva mathas were established at least from the 1st millennium onwards, in
Kashmir, Himalayan regions such as Nepal and throughout the subcontinent such
as in Tamil Nadu. Many of the monasteries and attached temples, particularly in
the northwest Indian subcontinent, were destroyed by Islamic armies after the
12th-century, and Shaiva monastic network severely disrupted from the
consequent violence. In some cases, the Hindu monasteries were converted into
Islamic ribats or madrasa (soldier barracks, schools) during the medieval
period. The Shaiva monasteries have been from diverse schools of Shaivism,
ranging from nondualist to theistic schools, and regionally went by a range of
names such as Jogi (Yogis), Natha, Darshani, Kanphata
of Gorakshanath sampradaya.
Advaita Vedanta
Shankara is regarded as the founder of the most famous monasteries in
Hinduism. These have hosted the Dasanami Sampradaya under four Maṭhas,
with the headquarters at Dwarka in the West, Jagannatha Puri in the East,
Sringeri in the South and Badrinath in the North. Each math was headed by one
of his disciples, called Shankaracharya, who each independently continued the
Advaita Vedanta Sampradaya. The ten Shankara-linked Advaita monastic orders are
distributed as follows: Bharati, Puri and Saraswati at Sringeri, Aranya and
Vana at Puri, Tirtha and Ashrama at Dwarka, and Giri, Parvata and Sagara at
Badrinath.
The mathas which Shankara built exist until today, and continue the
teachings and influence of Shankara.
The table below gives an overview of the four largest Advaita Mathas
founded by Adi Shankara, and their details. However, evidence suggests that
Shankara established more mathas locally for Vedanta studies and its
propagation, states Hartmut Scharfe, such as the "four mathas in the city
of Trichur alone that were headed by Trotaka, Sureshvara, Hastamalaka and
Padmapada".
Shishya
(lineage) |
Direction
|
Maṭha
|
State
|
Mahavakya
|
Veda
|
Sampradaya
|
Padmapada
|
East
|
Govardhana Pīṭhaṃ
|
Odisha
|
Prajnanam brahma (Consciousness
is Brahman)
|
Rig Veda
|
Bhogavala
|
Suresvara
|
South
|
Sringeri Sarada Piṭhaṃ
|
Karnataka
|
Aham brahmasmi (I am Brahman)
|
Yajur Veda
|
Bhūrivala
|
Hastamalakacarya
|
West
|
Dvaraka Piṭhaṃ
|
Gujarat
|
Tattvamasi (That thou art)
|
Sama Veda
|
Kitavala
|
Toṭakacarya
|
North
|
Jyotirmaṭha Pīṭhaṃ
|
Uttarakhand
|
Ayamatma brahma (This Atman is
Brahman)
|
Atharva Veda
|
Nandavala
|
Other Advaita mathas
Other Advaita Vedanta mathas following Smarta Tradition include:
·
Svarnavalli Matha at Swarnavalli near Sodhe,
Sirsi, Karnataka
·
Ramachandrapura Math at Haniya, Hosanagara,
Karnataka
·
Kanchi matha, at Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu
·
Chitrapur Math, Shirali, Karnataka
·
Shri Gaudapadacharya Math, Kavale, Ponda, Goa
·
Sri Samsthan Dabholi Math, Dabholi, Goa
·
Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission
Shaiva Siddhanta
Shaiva Siddhanta is a theistic school of Shaivism based on dualism (human
soul and God are different), and it established matha at least from the
middle of 1st millennium CE. Archeological evidence dated to 724 CE suggests
the existence of an influential Saiva Siddhanta matha named after Mattamayura.
Other historical evidence suggests that these Shaiva monks were active in
Shaiva theosophical scholarship and the spread of Shaiva ideas in north and
west India till about the 12th century.
Other major monasteries include the Golaki matha that existed by the 10th
century, famed for its round temple shape, probably near modern Jabalpur in
Madhya Pradesh. This monastery featured a cluster of Shiva temples, a hospital,
college and lodging for students. The Golaki matha was a center for Vedic
studies with parallel studies of Buddhist literature. Inscription evidence
suggests set up numerous Shaiva monasteries in the Deccan region under Kakatiya
dynasty sponsorship, many of which were destroyed in Hindu-Muslim wars that
ended the Kakatiya rule. The origins of Golaki matha of central India has been
traced to more ancient monasteries in Kashmir.
In Karnataka, historical evidence suggests that Queen Alhanadevi
established the Shaiva monastery called Kodiya matha which included a temple,
monastic lodging and study hall, with scholarship on Vedas, Shastras and
Puranas. The Chola dynasty sponsored many influential Shaiva mathas. While many
Shaiva monasteries had attached temples, some did not and were entirely
dedicated to education and scholarship.
Nath Shaiva Mathas
The Nath tradition is a syncretic Yoga and Vedanta schools of Hindu
philosophy based Shaiva tradition, that reveres Shiva and Dattatreya. Its
founding is attributed to the ideas of Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath,
developed further with an additional seven other Siddha Yoga Gurus called
"Naths" (literally, lords). The Nath Yogi sampradaya and
monastic organizations grew starting with the 13th century, with its matha
headquarters in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. Many of their mathas are found in the
northern, central and western states of India particularly in the Himalayas,
but archeological inscriptions suggest their mathas existed in south India as
well. The early Nath monks received endowments in Karnataka, for example,
between the 10th and 13th century, which later became a temple and Shaiva matha
hub for them near Mangalore. The Kadri matha, for instance, is one of the
legendary monasteries in the Nath tradition which attracted converts from
Buddhism and infusion of Buddhist ideas into Shaivism, and it continues to be a
part of the Nath Shaiva tradition, particularly during the Kumbh Mela
celebrations in modern times.
The Nath Siddha tradition of Shaivism is credited with establishing
numerous Shiva Hindu temples and monasteries, particularly in Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, north
Bihar, and Nepal. The Gorakhnath matha is an active Shaivism monastery named
after the medieval saint, Gorakhnath of the Nath sampradaya. The matha and town
of Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh is named after him. The monastery and the temple
performs various cultural and social activities and serves as the cultural hub
of the city. The monastery also publishes texts on the philosophy of Gorakhnath.
Nath Shaiva monastic organization was one of those Hindu monk groups that
militarized and took up arms following the Muslim conquest of India, to resist
persecution. They were scorned and persecuted by Mughal Empire officials, and
by social, cultural and religious elites. However, the Nath yogi monks have
been very popular with the rural population in South Asia since medieval times.
Lingayatism
The matha monastic organization has been active since the emergence
of Lingayat movement in Karnataka around the 12th century. They have enjoyed
community support, and have served as the center for Shaiva studies as well as
Lingayat community's educational, cultural and philanthropic activities. There
have been six active large Lingayat monasteries, one each at Kedaranath
(Himalayas), Kashi (Varanasi, Ganges), Srisaila (Andhra Pradesh), Kalyana,
Rambhapuri-Balehalli and Ujjain (all three in Karnataka).There are smaller
Vira-Shaiva monasteries, and rural branch monasteries, across India that serve
the needs of the local Lingayat communities.
The Lingayat monasteries have associated priestly class who are referred to
as the Jangamas, but this class is not part of the monastery and often
householders. Anyone, from any social class, can become a Lingayat monk and join
its monastery, and the internal organization has allowed social mobility from
its earliest days. The Jangamas often officiate rites of passage, such
as wedding. The succession in Lingayat branch monasteries may be appointed
either by the main monastery, or the local chief may name his successor.
Other Shaiva mathas
·
Dharmapuram Adheenam
·
Thiruvaduthurai Adheenam
·
Madurai Adheenam
·
Thiruppanandal Adheenam
·
Sivatirtha matha
·
Hardwar matha
·
Nasik matha
·
Caughera matha (Nepal)
·
Dhinodara matha
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