Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic poem which
narrates the struggle of the divine prince Rama
to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. Along with the Mahabharata,
it forms the HinduItihasa.
The epic, traditionally ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki,
narrates the life of Rama, the legendary prince
of the Kosala Kingdom. It follows his
fourteen-year exile to the forest from the kingdom, by his father King Dasharatha, on request of his second wife Kaikeyi. His travels across forests in India with his
wife Sita and brother Lakshmana,
the kidnapping of his wife by Ravana, the demon
king of Lanka, resulting in a war with him, and
Rama's eventual return to Ayodhya to be crowned
king.
There have been many attempts to unravel the
epic's historical growth and compositional layers; various recent scholars'
estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th to 4th
centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE.
The Ramayana is one of the largest
ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the Shloka
meter), divided into seven Kandas and about 500 sargas (chapters). In Hindu tradition, it is considered to be the adi-kavya
(first poem). It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal
characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the
ideal husband and the ideal king. Ramayana was an important influence on
later Sanskrit poetry and Hindu life and
culture. Like Mahabharata, Ramayana is not just a story: it
presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical
elements. The characters Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman, Shatrughna, and Ravana
are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness of India,
Nepal, Sri Lanka
and south-east Asian countries such as Thailand,
Cambodia, Malaysia
and Indonesia.
There are many versions
of Ramayana in Indian languages, besides Buddhist, Sikh and Jain adaptations. There are also Cambodian, Indonesian,
Filipino, Thai,
Lao, Burmese
and Malaysian versions of the tale.
Textual History & Structure
According to Hindu tradition, and the Ramayana
itself, the epic belongs to the genre of itihasa like Mahabharata.
The definition of itihāsa is a narrative of past events (purāvṛtta)
which includes teachings on the goals of human life.
According to Hindu tradition, Ramayana takes place during a period of
time known as Treta Yuga.
In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana
is an epic poem of some 24,000 verses. The text survives in several thousand
partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a palm-leaf manuscript found in Nepal and dated to the
11th century CE.
Period
Ramayana predates Mahabharata.
However, the general cultural background of Ramayana is one of the post-urbanization periods of the eastern part of north India and Nepal,
while Mahabharata reflects the Kuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic
period.
By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu
chronology. Rama is said to have been born in
the Treta yuga to king Dasharatha in the Ikshvaku dynasty.
The names of the characters (Rama, Sita,
Dasharatha, Janaka, Vashista,
Vishwamitra) are all known in late Vedic literature. However, nowhere in the surviving
Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. According to
the modern academic view, Vishnu, who, according to Bala
Kanda, was incarnated as Rama, first
came into prominence with the epics themselves and further, during the puranic
period of the later 1st millennium CE. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is
a version of Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana. This version is depicted as a
narration to Yudhishthira.
Books two to six form the oldest portion of
the epic, while the first and last books (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda,
respectively) are later additions, as some style differences and narrative
contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the book. The author
or authors of Bala Kanda and Ayodhya Kanda appear to be familiar with the
eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India
and with the Kosala, Mithila
and Magadha regions during the period of the
sixteen Mahajanapadas, based on the fact that
the geographical and geopolitical data accords with what is known about the
region.
Characters
Ikshvaku dynasty
· Dasharatha is king of Ayodhya and father of Rama. He has three queens, Kausalya, Kaikeyi and
Sumitra, and three other sons: Bharata, and twins Lakshmana
and Shatrughna. Once, Kaikeyi saved Dasaratha
in a war and as a reward, she got the privilege from Dasaratha to fulfil two of
her wishes at any time of her lifetime. She made use of the opportunity and
forced Dasharatha to make their son Bharata crown prince and send Rama into
exile for 14 years. Dasharatha dies heartbroken after Rama goes into exile.
· Rama is the main character of
the tale. Portrayed as the seventh avatar of god Vishnu,
he is the eldest and favourite son of Dasharatha,
the king of Ayodhya and his Chief Queen, Kausalya.
He is portrayed as the epitome of virtue. Dasharatha is forced by Kaikeyi to
command Rama to relinquish his right to the throne for fourteen years and go
into exile. Rama kills the evil demon Ravana, who abducted his wife Sita, and
later returns to Ayodhya to form an ideal state.
· Sita is another of the tale's
protagonists. She is a daughter of Mother Earth, adopted by King Janaka, and
Rama's beloved wife. Rama went to Mithila and
got a chance to marry her by breaking the Shiv Dhanush (bow) while trying to
tie a knot to it in a competition organized by King Janaka of Mithila. The competition was to find the most
suitable husband for Sita and many princes from different states competed to
win her. Sita is the avatara of goddess Lakshmi,
the consort of Vishnu. Sita is portrayed as the epitome of female purity and
virtue. She follows her husband into exile and is abducted by the demon king
Ravana. She is imprisoned on the island of Lanka,
until Rama rescues her by defeating Ravana. Later, she gives birth to twin boys
Luv and Kusha.
· Bharata is the son of Dasharatha
and Queen Kaikeyi. When he learns that his mother Kaikeyi has forced Rama into
exile and caused Dasharatha to die brokenhearted, he storms out of the palace
and goes in search of Rama in the forest. When Rama refuses to return from his
exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains Rama's sandals and places them on
the throne as a gesture that Rama is the true king. Bharata then rules Ayodhya
as the regent of Rama for the next fourteen years, staying outside the city of
Ayodhya. He was married to Mandavi.
· Lakshmana is a younger brother of
Rama, who chose to go into exile with him. He is the son of King Dasharatha and
Queen Sumitra and twin of Shatrughna. Lakshmana is portrayed as an avatar of Shesha, the nāga
associated with the god Vishnu. He spends his time protecting Sita and Rama,
during which time he fights the demoness Shurpanakha.
He is forced to leave Sita, who was deceived by the demon Maricha into believing that Rama was in trouble. Sita
is abducted by Ravana upon his leaving her. He was married to Sita's younger
sister Urmila.
· Shatrughna is a son of Dasharatha
and his third wife Queen Sumitra. He is the youngest brother of Rama and also
the twin brother of Lakshmana. He was married to Shrutakirti.
Allies of Rama
The vanaras constructing the Rama
Setu Bridge to Lanka, makaras and fish
also aid the construction. A 9th century Prambanan
bas-relief, Central Java, Indonesia.
Vanara
· Hanuman is a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkindha. He is
an ideal bhakta of Rama. He is born as son of
Kesari, a Vanara king in Sumeru region and his wife Añjanā.
He plays an important part in locating Sita and in the ensuing battle. He is
believed to live until our modern world.
· Sugriva, a vanara king who helped
Rama regain Sita from Ravana. He had an agreement with Rama through which Vali
– Sugriva's brother and king of Kishkindha – would be killed by Rama in
exchange for Sugriva's help in finding Sita. Sugriva ultimately ascends the
throne of Kishkindha after the slaying of Vali and fulfills his promise by
putting the Vanara forces at Rama's disposal.
·
Angada is a vanara who helped
Rama find his wife Sita and fight her abductor, Ravana,
in Ramayana. He was son of Vali and Tara and
nephew of Sugriva. Angada and Tara are
instrumental in reconciling Rama and his
brother, Lakshmana, with Sugriva after Sugriva fails to fulfill his promise to
help Rama find and rescue his wife. Together they are able to convince Sugriva
to honour his pledge to Rama instead of spending his time carousing and
drinking.
Riksha
· Jambavan/Jamvanta is known as Riksharaj
(King of the Rikshas). Rikshas are bears. In the epic Ramayana, Jambavantha
helped Rama find his wife Sita and fight her abductor, Ravana. It is he who
makes Hanuman realize his immense capabilities and encourages him to fly across
the ocean to search for Sita in Lanka.
Griddha
· Jatayu, son of Aruṇa and nephew of Garuda.
A demi-god who has the form of a vulture that
tries to rescue Sita from Ravana. Jatayu fought valiantly with Ravana, but as
Jatayu was very old, Ravana soon got the better of him. As Rama and Lakshmana
chanced upon the stricken and dying Jatayu in their search for Sita, he informs
them of the direction in which Ravana had gone.
· Sampati, son of Aruna, brother of Jatayu.
Sampati's role proved to be instrumental in the search for Sita.
Rakshasa
· Vibhishana, youngest brother of
Ravana. He was against the abduction of Sita and joined the forces of Rama when
Ravana refused to return her. His intricate knowledge of Lanka was vital in the
war and he was crowned king after the fall of Ravana.
Foes Of Rama
Rakshasas
· Ravana, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. He was son of a sage
named Vishrava and daitya
princess Kaikesi. After performing severe
penance for ten thousand years he received a boon from the creator-god Brahma: he could henceforth not be killed by gods,
demons, or spirits. He is portrayed as a powerful demon king who disturbs the
penances of rishis. Vishnu incarnates as the
human Rama to defeat him, thus circumventing the boon given by Brahma.
· Indrajit or Meghnadha, the
eldest son of Ravana who twice defeated Rama and Lakshmana in battle, before
succumbing to Lakshmana. An adept of the magical arts, he coupled his supreme
fighting skills with various stratagems to inflict heavy losses on Vanara army
before his death.
· Kumbhakarna, brother of Ravana,
famous for his eating and sleeping. He would sleep for months at a time and
would be extremely ravenous upon waking up, consuming anything set before him.
His monstrous size and loyalty made him an important part of Ravana's army.
During the war he decimated the Vanara army before Rama cut off his limbs and
head.
· Shurpanakha, Ravana's demoness sister
who fell in love with Rama and had the magical power to take any form she
wanted.
Vanara
· Vali, was king of Kishkindha, husband of Tara, a son of Indra, elder brother of Sugriva
and father of Angada. Vali was famous for the
boon that he had received, according to which anyone who fought him in
single-combat lost half his strength to Vali, thereby making Vali invulnerable to
any enemy. He was killed by Lord Rama, an
Avatar of Vishnu.
Synopsis
Bala Kanda
Dasharatha was the king of Ayodhya. He had
three wives: Kaushalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. He was childless for a long time
and anxious to produce an heir, so he performs a fire sacrifice known as putra-kameshti
yagya. As a consequence, Rama is first born to Kaushalya, Bharata is born
to Kaikeyi, Lakshmana and Shatrughna are born to Sumitra. These sons are
endowed, to various degrees, with the essence of the Supreme Trinity Entity Vishnu; Vishnu had opted to be born into mortality to
combat the demon Ravana, who was oppressing the gods, and who could only be
destroyed by a mortal. The boys are reared as the princes of the realm,
receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare from Vashistha. When
Rama is 16 years old, sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in
search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses
Rama, who is followed by Lakshmana, his constant companion throughout the
story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions and supernatural weapons from
Vishwamitra and proceed to destroy the demons.
Janaka was the king of Mithila.
One day, a female child was found in the field by the king in the deep furrow
dug by his plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a
"miraculous gift of god". The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word
for furrow. Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. The
king had decided that who ever could lift and wield the heavy bow, presented to
his ancestors by Shiva, could marry Sita. Sage
Vishwamitra takes Rama and Lakshmana to Mithila to show the bow. Then Rama
desires to lift it and goes on to wield the bow and when he draws the string,
it breaks.Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters
of Janaka. Rama gets married to Sita, Lakshmana
to Urmila, Bharata
to Mandavi and Shatrughna
to Shrutakirti. The weddings are celebrated
with great festivity in Mithila and the
marriage party returns to Ayodhya.
Ayodhya Kanda
After Rama and Sita have been married for
twelve years, an elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Rama, to
which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of
the great event, Kaikeyi – her jealousy aroused by Manthara,
a wicked maidservant – claims two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted
her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years,
while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king,
constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi's
demands. Rama accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission
and calm self-control which characterises him throughout the story. He is
joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says,
"the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a
veritable hell for me." After Rama's departure, King Dasharatha, unable to
bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata who was on a visit to his
maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit
from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests
Rama to return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders
to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. However, Bharata
carries Rama's sandals and keeps them on the throne, while he rules as Rama's
regent.
Aranya Kanda
After thirteen years of exile, Rama, Sita and
Lakshmana journey southward along the banks of river Godavari,
where they build cottages and live off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasi named Shurpanakha,
sister of Ravana. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts
to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of
this, her brother Khara organises an attack
against the princes. Rama defeats Khara and his raskshasas.
When the news of these events reach Ravana, he
resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the rakshasaMaricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer,
captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads
with Rama to capture it. Rama, aware that this is the ploy of the demons,
cannot dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest,
leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After some time, Sita hears Rama calling
out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid.
Lakshmana tries to assure her that Rama is invincible and that it is best if he
continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics,
Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshmana's help. He obeys
her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any
stranger. He draws a chalk outline, the Lakshmana
rekha, around the cottage and casts a spell on it that prevents anyone
from entering the boundary but allows people to exit. With the coast finally
clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality.
Unaware of her guest's plan, Sita is tricked into leaving the rekha and is then
forcibly carried away by Ravana.
Jatayu, a vulture,
tries to rescue Sita, but is mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept under the
guard of rakshasis. Ravana asks Sita to marry him, but she refuses,
being eternally devoted to Rama. Meanwhile, Rama and Lakshmana learn about
Sita's abduction from Jatayu and immediately set out to save her. During their
search, they meet Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.
Kishkindha Kanda
Kishkindha Kanda is set in the ape (Vanara) citadel Kishkindha. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the
biggest devotee of Rama, greatest of ape heroes and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of
Kishkindha. Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kishkindha, in
exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita. However Sugriva soon forgets his
promise and spends his time in enjoying his powers. The clever former ape queen
Tara (wife of Vali) calmly intervenes to
prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying the ape citadel. She then
eloquently convinces Sugriva to honour his pledge. Sugriva then sends search
parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from
north, east and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Angada and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati (elder brother of Jatayu), that Sita was
taken to Lanka.
Sundara Kanda
Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid
account of Hanuman's adventures. After learning
about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form
and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way he meets with
many challenges like facing a Gandharva kanya who comes in the form of a demon
to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain named Mainakudu who offers Lord
Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Lord Hanuman refuses because there is
little time remaining to complete the search for Sita.
After entering into Lanka, he finds a demon,
Lankini, who protects all of Lanka. Hanuman fights with her and subjugates her
in order to get into Lanka. In the process Lankini, who had an earlier
vision/warning from the gods that the end of Lanka nears if someone defeats
Lankini. Here, Hanuman explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Ravana. He
locates Sita in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Ravana
and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. Hanuman reassures Sita, giving Rama's signet
ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama; however,
she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramayana will not
have significance if Hanuman carries her to Rama – "When Rama is not there
Ravana carried Sita forcibly and when Ravana was not there, Hanuman carried
Sita back to Rama". She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the
insult of her abduction.
Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka by
destroying trees and buildings and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself
to be captured and delivered to Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to
release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his
bonds and leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel and makes
the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to
Kishkindha with the news.
Yuddha Kanda
Also known as Lanka Kanda, this book
describes the war between the army of Rama and the army of Ravana. Having
received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies
towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Ravana's
renegade brother Vibhishana. The apes named Nala and Nila
construct a floating bridge (known as Rama Setu)
across the sea, using stones that floated on water because they had Rama's name
written on them. The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war
ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son Indrajit
hurls a powerful weapon at Lakshmana, who is badly wounded and is nearly
killed. So Hanuman assumes a gigantic form and flies from Lanka to the
Himalayas. Upon reaching Mount Sumeru, Hanuman was unable to identify the herb
that could cure Lakshmana and so decided to bring the entire mountain back to
Lanka. Eventually, the war ends when Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs
Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka.
On meeting Sita, Rama asks her to undergo an
Agni Pariksha (test of fire) to prove her chastity, as he wants to get rid of
the rumors surrounding her purity. When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire,
Agni, lord of fire raises Sita, unharmed, to
the throne, attesting to her innocence. The episode of Agni Pariksha
varies in the versions of Ramayana by Valmiki and Tulsidas.
In Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas,
Sita was under the protection of Agni (see Maya Sita)
so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama. At the
expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita and
Lakshmana, where the coronation is performed. This is the beginning of Ram
Rajya, which implies an ideal state with good morals. Ramayan is not only the
story about how truth defeats the evil, it also teaches us to forget all the
evil and arrogance that resides inside ourselves.
Uttara Kanda
Sita in the hermitage of Valmiki
Uttara Kanda concerns the final years of Rama, Sita and Rama's brothers. After being
crowned king, Rama passes time pleasantly with Sita. After some time, Sita gets
pregnant with twin children. However, despite Agni Pariksha ("fire
ordeal") of Sita, rumours about her "purity" are spreading among
the populace of Ayodhya. Rama yields to public opinion and reluctantly banishes
Sita to the forest, where the sage Valmiki provides shelter in his ashrama ("hermitage"). Here, she
gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha, who become pupils of Valmiki and are brought
up in ignorance of their identity.
Valmiki composes the Ramayana and
teaches Lava and Kusha to sing it. Later, Rama holds a ceremony during the Ashwamedhayagna, which sage Valmiki, with Lava
and Kusha, attends. Lava and Kusha sing the Ramayana in the presence of
Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recite about Sita's exile, Rama
becomes grief-stricken and Valmiki produces Sita. Sita calls upon the Earth, her mother, to receive her and as the
ground opens, she vanishes into it. Rama then learns that Lava and Kusha are
his children. Many years later, a messenger from the Gods appears and informs
Rama that the mission of his incarnation is over. Rama returns to his celestial
abode along with his brothers. It was dramatised as Uttararamacarita
by the Sanskrit poet Bhavabhuti.
Versions
As in many oral epics, multiple versions of
the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in
north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India
and the rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral
storytelling based on Ramayana in Indonesia,
Cambodia, Philippines,
Thailand, Malaysia,
Laos, Vietnam
and Maldives.
India
There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana
written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from
each other. During the 12th century, Kamban
wrote Ramavataram, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil.
A Telugu version, Ranganatha
Ramayanam, was written by Gona Budda Reddy
in the 14th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language
is the early 14th century Saptakanda Ramayana
in Assamese by Madhava
Kandali. Valmiki's Ramayana inspired Sri
Ramacharit Manas by Tulsidas in 1576, an
epic Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a
slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti; it is an acknowledged masterpiece of India,
popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana. Gujarati
poet Premanand wrote a version of the Ramayana in the 17th century.
Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan, a Bengali version by Krittibas
Ojha in the 15th century; Vilanka Ramayana
by 15th century poet Sarala Dasa and Dandi Ramayana (also known as Jagamohana Ramayana) by 16th century poet
Balarama Dasa, both in Odia; a Torave Ramayana in Kannada
by 16th-century poet Narahari; Adhyathmaramayanam,
a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the 16th
century; in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th
century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th
century; and in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi Kuvempu's
Sri Ramayana Darshanam in Kannada.
There is a sub-plot to the Ramayana,
prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahiravan and Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana,
which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and
Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of
Ravana and held prisoner in a subterranean cave, to be sacrificed to the
goddess Kali. Adbhuta
Ramayana is a version that is obscure but also attributed to Valmiki – intended as a supplementary to the original
Valmiki Ramayana. In this variant of the
narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the
events surrounding her birth – in this case to Ravana's
wife, Mandodari as well as her conquest of
Ravana's older brother in her Mahakali form.
Buddhist Version
In the Buddhist variant of the Ramayana
(Dasarathajātaka, #467), Dasharatha was king of Benares and not Ayodhya. Rama (called Rāmapaṇḍita in
this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa
(Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra, the second wife of
Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife
Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a
hermitage in the Himalayas for a twelve-year exile. After nine years,
Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned; Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to
his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version
does not include the abduction of Sītā.There is no Ravan in this version i.e.
no Ram-ravan war.
In the explanatory commentary on Jātaka,
Rāmapaṇḍita is said to have been a previous incarnation of the Buddha, and Sita an incarnation of Yasodharā.
But, Ravana
appears in other Buddhist literature, the Lankavatara
Sutra.
Jain Version
Jain versions of the Ramayana can be found
in the various Jain agamas like Ravisena's Padmapurana (story of Padmaja and Rama, Padmaja being the name of Sita), Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusa charitra (hagiography of 63
illustrious persons), Sanghadasa's Vasudevahindi and Uttarapurana
by Gunabhadara. According to Jain cosmology,
every half time cycle has nine sets of Balarama, Vasudeva
and prativasudeva. Rama, Lakshmana and Ravana are the eighth baladeva,
vasudeva and prativasudeva
respectively. Padmanabh Jaini notes that,
unlike in the Hindu puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted
to Balarama and Krishna
in Jain Puranas. Instead they serve as names of
two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half
time cycle and jointly rule half the earth as half-chakravartins.
Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the jinacharitra
(lives of jinas) by Acharya Bhadrabahu (3d–4th
century BCE).
In the Jain epic of Ramayana, it is not
Rama who kills Ravana as told in the Hindu version. Perhaps this is because
Rama, a liberated Jain Soul in his last life, is unwilling to kill.Instead, it
is Lakshmana who kills Ravana. In the end, Rama, who led an upright life,
renounces his kingdom, becomes a Jain monk and
attains moksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana
and Ravana go to Hell. However, it is predicted
that ultimately they both will be reborn as upright persons and attain
liberation in their future births. According to Jain
texts, Ravana will be the future Tirthankara
(omniscient teacher) of Jainism.
The Jain versions have some variations from
Valmiki's Ramayana. Dasharatha, the king of Saketa had four queens:
Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons.
Aparajita's son was Padma and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's
son was Narayana: he came to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son
was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna. Furthermore, not much was
thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to the Jain version, Rama had four
chief queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama. Furthermore, Sita
takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in
heaven. Rama, after Lakshmana's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a
Jain monk. Ultimately, he attains Kevala Jnana
omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana,
who were in the fourth hell, will attain
liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future
tirthankara of the next half ascending time cycle and Sita will be his Ganadhara.
Sikh Version
In Guru Granth Sahib,
there is a description of two types of Ramayana. One is a spiritual Ramayana
which is the actual subject of Guru Granth Sahib, in which Ravana is ego, Sita
is budhi (intellect), Rama is inner soul and Laxman is mann
(attention, mind). Guru Granth Sahib also believes in the existence of Dashavatara who were kings of their times which tried
their best to restore order to the world. King Rama (Ramchandra) was one of those
who is not covered in Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Granth Sahib states:
ਹੁਕਮਿਉਪਾਏਦਸਅਉਤਾਰਾ॥
हुकमिउपाएदसअउतारा॥
By hukam (supreme command), he created his ten
incarnations
This version of the Ramayana was
written by Guru Gobind Singh, which is part of Dasam Granth.
He also said that the almighty, invisible, all
prevailing God created great numbers of Indras, Moons and Suns, Deities, Demons
and sages, and also numerous saints and Brahmanas (enlightened people). But
they too were caught in the noose of death (Kaal) (transmigration
of the soul). This is similar to the explanation in Bhagavad Gita which is part of the Mahabharata.
Nepal
Besides being the site of discovery of the
oldest surviving manuscript of the Ramayana, Nepal gave rise to two
regional variants in mid 19th – early 20th century. One, written by Bhanubhakta Acharya, is considered the first epic of Nepali language, while the other, written by Siddhidas Mahaju in Nepal
Bhasa was a foundational influence in the Nepal
Bhasa renaissance.
Ramayana written by Bhanubhakta Acharya is one of
the most popular verses in Nepal. The popularization of the Ramayana and
its tale, originally written in Sanskrit Language
was greatly enhanced by the work of Bhanubhakta. Mainly because of his writing
of Nepali Ramayana, Bhanubhakta is also called Aadi Kavi or The
Pioneering Poet.
Southeast Asian
Cambodia
The Cambodian version of the Ramayana, Reamker(Glory of Rama), is the most famous
story of Khmer literature since the Kingdom of Funan
era. It adapts the Hindu concepts to Buddhist themes and shows the balance of
good and evil in the world. The Reamker has several differences from the
original Ramayana, including scenes not included in the original and
emphasis on Hanuman and Sovanna Maccha, a retelling which influences the Thai
and Lao versions. Reamker in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of
literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, such as sculpture, Khmer classical dance, theatre
known as lakhorn luang (the foundation of the royal ballet), poetry and
the mural and bas-reliefs seen at the Silver Pagoda
and Angkor Wat.
Indonesia
There are several Indonesian adaptations of
Ramayana, including the Javanese Kakawin Ramayana
and Balinese Ramakavaca. The first half of Kakawin
Ramayana is similar to the original Sanskrit version, while the
latter half is very different. One of the recognizable modifications is the
inclusion of the indigenous Javanese guardian demigod, Semar, and his sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong who
make up the numerically significant four Punokawan
or "clown servants". Kakawin Ramayana is believed to have been
written in Central Java circa 870 AD during the
reign of Mpu Sindok in the Medang Kingdom. The
Javanese Kakawin Ramayana is not based on Valmiki's epic, which was then
the most famous version of Rama's story, but based on Ravanavadha
or the "Ravana massacre", which is the sixth or seventh century poem
by Indian poet Bhattikavya.
Kakawin Ramayana was further developed on the neighboring
island of Bali becoming the Balinese Ramakavaca.
The bas-reliefs of Ramayana and Krishnayana scenes are carved on balustrades of
the 9th century Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta, as well as in the 14th century Penataran temple in East
Java. In Indonesia, the Ramayana is a
deeply ingrained aspect of the culture, especially among Javanese, Balinese
and Sundanese people, and has become the source
of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic expression and
entertainment, for example in wayang and
traditional dances. The Balinesekecak
dance for example, retells the story of the Ramayana, with dancers playing the
roles of Rama, Sita, Lakhsmana, Jatayu, Hanuman, Ravana, Kumbhakarna and
Indrajit surrounded by a troupe of over 50 bare-chested men who serve as the
chorus chanting "cak". The performance also includes a fire show to
describe the burning of Lanka by Hanuman. In Yogyakarta,
the Wayang WongJavanese dance also
retells the Ramayana. One example of a dance production of the Ramayana in Java
is the Ramayana Ballet performed on the
Trimurti Prambanan open air stage, with the three main prasad spires of the Prambanan Hindu temple as a backdrop.
Laos
Phra Lak Phra Lam is a Lao language
version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of Lakshmana and
Rama is told as the previous life of Gautama buddha.
Malaysia
The Hikayat Seri Rama
of Malaysia incorporated element of both Hindu
and Islamic mythology.
Myanmar
Yama Zatdaw is the Burmese
version of Ramayana. It is also considered the unofficial national epic of Myanmar. There are nine known pieces of the Yama
Zatdaw in Myanmar. The Burmese name for the story itself is Yamayana, while
zatdaw refers to the acted play or being part of the jataka
tales of Theravada Buddhism. This Burmese version is also heavily
influenced by Ramakien (Thai version of
Ramayana) which resulted from various invasions by Konbaung
Dynasty kings toward the Ayutthaya Kingdom.
Philippines
The Maharadia
Lawana, an epic poem of the Maranao people
of the Philippines, has been regarded as an
indigenized version of the Ramayana since it was documented and translated into
English by Professor Juan R. Francisco and
Nagasura Madale in 1968. The poem, which had not been written down before
Francisco and Madale's translation,narrates the adventures of the monkey-king,
Maharadia Lawana, whom the Gods have gifted with immortality.
Francisco, an indologist from the University of the Philippines Manila, believed that
the Ramayana narrative arrived in the Philippines sometime between the 17th to
19th centuries, via interactions with Javanese and Malaysian cultures which
traded extensively with India.
By the time it was documented in the 1960s,
the character names, place names, and the precise episodes and events in
Maharadia Lawana's narrative already had some notable differences from those of
the Ramayana. Francisco believed that this was a sign of
"indigenization", and suggested that some changes had already been
introduced in Malaysia and Java even before the story was heard by the Maranao,
and that upon reaching the Maranao homeland, the story was "further
indigenized to suit Philippine cultural perspectives and orientations."
Thailand
Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien(glory of Rama) is derived from the
Hindu epic. In Ramakien, Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (thotsakan
and montho). Vibhishana (phiphek), the astrologer brother of
Ravana, predicts the death of Ravana from the horoscope of Sita. Ravana has
thrown her into the water, but she is later rescued by Janaka (chanok).
While the main story is identical to that of Ramayana, many other
aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons,
topography and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style.
It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious
character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.
Critical Edition
A critical edition
of the text was compiled in India in the 1960s and 1970s, by the Oriental
Institute at Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda,
India, utilizing dozens of manuscripts collected from across India and the
surrounding region. An English language translation of the critical edition was
completed in November 2016 by Sanskrit scholar Robert P. Goldman of the University of California, Berkeley.
Influence On Culture & Art
One of the most important literary works of ancient India, the Ramayana has had a profound
impact on art and culture in the Indian subcontinent
and southeast Asia with the lone exception of Vietnam. The story ushered in the
tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction
of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary
literature in various languages, notably Kambaramayanam
by Tamil poet Kambar
of the 12th century, Telugu languageMolla
Ramayanam by poet Molla and Ranganatha Ramayanam by poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th
century Kannada poet Narahari's
Torave Ramayana and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha's
Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th century
Awadhi version, Ramacharitamanas,
written by Tulsidas.
Ramayanic scenes have also been depicted
through terracottas, stone
sculptures, bronzes and paintings. These include the
stone panel at Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh
depicting Bharata's meeting with Rama at Chitrakuta (3rd century CE).
The Ramayana became popular in
Southeast Asia during 8th century and was represented in literature, temple
architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of the
Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place
all across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian diaspora.
In Indonesia,
especially Java and Bali,
Ramayana has become a popular source of artistic expression for dance drama and
shadow puppet performance in the region. Sendratari Ramayana is Javanese traditional ballet of wayang orang genre, routinely performed in Prambanan Trimurti temple and in cultural center of Yogyakarta. Balinese dance
drama of Ramayana is also performed routinely in Balinese Hindu temples, especially in temples such as
Ubud and Uluwatu,
where scenes from Ramayana is integrap part of kecak
dance performance. Javanese wayang kulit purwa
also draws its episodes from Ramayana or Mahabharata.
Ramayana has also been depicted in many paintings, most notably by the Malaysian
artist Syed Thajudeen in 1972. The epic tale
was picturized on canvas in epic proportions measuring 152 x 823 cm in 9
panels. The painting depicts three prolific parts of the epic, namely The
Abduction of Sita, Hanuman visits Sita and Hanuman Burns Lanka. The painting is
currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts
Gallery.
Religious Significance
Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is one
of the most popular deities worshipped in the Hindu religion. Each year, many
devout pilgrims trace their journey through India and Nepal, halting at each of
the holy sites along the way. The poem is not seen as just a literary monument,
but serves as an integral part of Hinduism and is held in such reverence that
the mere reading or hearing of it or certain passages of it, is believed by
Hindus to free them from sin and bless the reader or listener.
According to Hindu tradition, Rama is an
incarnation (Avatar) of god Vishnu. The main purpose of this incarnation is to
demonstrate the righteous path (dharma) for all
living creatures on earth.
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