Adi Shankara or Shankara, was an early 8th century Indian philosopher and theologian
who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta. He is credited with unifying
and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism.
His works in Sanskrit
discuss the unity of the atman and Nirguna Brahman "brahman without
attributes". He wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma
Sutras, Principal Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his
thesis. His works elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads. Shankara's publications
criticised the ritually-oriented Mimamsa school of Hinduism. He also explained
the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts
"Atman (Soul, Self) exists", while Buddhism asserts that there is
"no Soul, no Self".
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to
propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He
established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and
Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mimaṃsa school established strict ritualism
and ridiculed monasticism. He is reputed to have founded four mathas
("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival
and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist.
Adi Shankara is believed to be the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order
and unified the Shanmata tradition of worship. He is also known as Adi
Shankaracharya, Shankara Bhagavatpada, sometimes spelled as Sankaracharya, (Adi)
Sankaracarya, Sankara Bhagavatpada and Sankara Bhagavatpadacarya.
The Sringeri records state that Shankara was born in the
14th year of the reign of "VikramAditya", but it is unclear as to
which king this name refers. Though some researchers identify the name with
Chandragupta II (4th century CE), modern scholarship accepts the VikramAditya
as being from the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, most likely Vikramaditya II
(733–746 CE),
Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara:
· 509–477 BCE: This dating, is based on records of the
heads of the Shankara's cardinal institutions Maṭhas at Dvaraka Pitha, the
Govardhana matha and Badri and the Kanchi Peetham. According to their records,
these monasteries were founded in Kali 2593 (509 BCE) by a person named Adi
Shankara. The successive heads of the Kanchi and all other major Hindu Advaita
tradition monasteries have been called Shankaracharya leading to some
confusion, discrepancies and scholarly disputes. The chronology stated in
Kanchi matha texts recognizes five major Shankaras: Adi, Kripa, Ujjvala, Muka
and Abhinava. According to the Kanchi matha tradition, it is "Abhinava
Shankara" that western scholarship recognizes as the Advaita scholar Adi
Shankara, while the monastery continues to recognize its 509 BCE chronology.
· 44–12 BCE: the commentator Anandagiri believed he was
born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE.
· 6th century CE: Telang placed him in this century. Sir
R.G. Bhandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE.
· c. 700 – c. 750 CE: Late 20th-century and early
21st-century scholarship tends to place Adi Shankara's life of 32 years in the
first half of the 8th century. According to the Indologist and Asian Religions
scholar John Koller, there is considerable controversy regarding the dates of
Shankara – widely regarded as one of India’s greatest thinkers, and "the
best recent scholarship argues that he was born in 700 and died in 750
CE".
· 788–820 CE: This was proposed by early 20th scholars and
was customarily accepted by scholars such as Max Müller, Macdonnel, Pathok,
Deussen and Radhakrishna, and others. The date 788–820 is also among those
considered acceptable by Swami Tapasyananda, though he raises a number of
questions. Though the 788–820 CE dates are widespread in 20th-century
publications, recent scholarship has questioned the 788–820 CE dates.
· 805–897 CE: Venkiteswara not only places Shankara later
than most, but also had the opinion that it would not have been possible for
him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him, and has him live ninety
two years.
The popularly accepted dating places Adi Shankara to be a
scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE.
Shankara was most likely born in the southern Indian
state of Kerala, according to the oldest biographies, in a village named Kaladi
sometimes spelled as Kalati or Karati, although some texts suggest the
birthplace to be Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu. He was born to Nambudiri Brahmin
parents. His father died while Shankara was very young. Shankara's upanayanam,
the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his
father, and was then performed by his mother.
Shankara's hagiography describe him as someone who was
attracted to the life of Sannyasa (hermit) from early childhood. His mother
disapproved. A story, found in all hagiographies, describe Shankara at age
eight going to a river with his mother, Sivataraka, to bathe, and where he is
caught by a crocodile. Shankara called out to his mother to give him permission
to become a Sannyasin or else the crocodile will kill him. The mother agrees,
Shankara is freed and leaves his home for education. He reaches a Saivite
sanctuary along a river in a north-central state of India, and becomes the
disciple of a teacher named Govinda Bhagavatpada. The stories in various
hagiographies diverge in details about the first meeting between Shankara and
his Guru, where they met, as well as what happened later. Several texts suggest
Shankara schooling with Govindapada happened along the river Narmada in
Omkareshwar, a few place it along river Ganges in Kashi (Varanasi) as well as
Badari (Badrinath in the Himalayas).
The biographies vary in their description of where he
went, who he met and debated and many other details of his life. Most mention
Shankara studying the Vedas, Upanishads and Brahmasutra with Govindapada, and
Shankara authoring several key works in his youth, while he was studying with
his teacher. It is with his teacher Govinda, that Shankara studied Gaudapadiya
Karika, as Govinda was himself taught by Gaudapada. Most also mention a meeting
with scholars of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism namely Kumarila and Prabhakara,
as well as Mandana and various Buddhists, in Shastrarth (an Indian tradition of
public philosophical debates attended by large number of people, sometimes with
royalty). Thereafter, the biographies about Shankara vary significantly.
Different and widely inconsistent accounts of his life include diverse
journeys, pilgrimages, public debates, installation of yantras and lingas, as
well as the founding of monastic centers in north, east, west and south India.
Philosophical tour and disciples
While the details and chronology vary, most biographies
mention Adi Shankara traveling widely within India, Gujarat to Bengal, and
participating in public philosophical debates with different orthodox schools
of Hindu philosophy, as well as heterodox traditions such as Buddhists, Jains,
Arhatas, Saugatas, and Carvakas. During his tours, he is credited with starting
several Matha (monasteries), however this is uncertain. Ten monastic orders in
different parts of India are generally attributed to Shankara's travel-inspired
Sannyasin schools, each with Advaita notions, of which four have continued in
his tradition: Bharati (Sringeri), Sarasvati (Kanchi), Tirtha and Asramin
(Dvaraka). Other monasteries that record Shankara's visit include Giri, Puri,
Vana, Aranya, Parvata and Sagara – all names traceable to Ashrama system in
Hinduism and Vedic literature.
Adi Shankara had a number of disciple scholars during his
travels, including Padmapada (also called Sanandana, associated with the text
Atma-bodha), Sureshvara, Tothaka, Citsukha, Prthividhara, Cidvilasayati,
Bodhendra, Brahmendra, Sadananda and others, who authored their own literature
on Shankara and Advaita Vedanta.
Death
Adi Sankara is believed to have died aged 32, at
Kedarnath in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand, a Hindu pilgrimage site
in the Himalayas. Texts say that he was last seen by his disciples behind the
Kedarnath temple, walking on the Himalayas until he was not traced. Some texts
locate his death in alternate locations such as Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu) and
somewhere in the state of Kerala.
Works
Adi Shankara's works are the foundation of Advaita
Vedanta school of Hinduism, and his doctrine, states Sengaku Mayeda, "has
been the source from which the main currents of modern Indian thought are
derived". Over 300 texts are attributed to his name, including
commentaries (Bhaṣya), original philosophical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha)
and poetry (Stotra). However most of these are not authentic works of Adi
Shankara and are likely to be works of his admirers or scholars whose name was
also Shankaracharya. Piantelli has published a complete list of works
attributed to Adi Sankara, along with issues of authenticity for most.
Authentic works
Adi Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and
commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient Indian texts. Shankara's masterpiece of
commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya (literally, commentary on Brahma Sutra), a
fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism.
His commentaries on ten Mukhya (principal) Upanishads are
also considered authentic by scholars, and these are: Bhasya on the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Chandogya Upanishad, the Aitareya Upanishad, the
Taittiriya Upanishad, the Kena Upanishad, the Isha Upanishad, the Katha
Upanishad, the Mundaka Upanishad, the Prashna Upanishad, and the Mandukya
Upanishad. Of these, the commentary on Mandukya, is actually a commentary on
Madukya-Karikas by Gaudapada.
Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on
the Bhagavad Gita (part of his Prasthana Trayi Bhasya). His Vivarana (tertiary
notes) on the commentary by Vedavyasa on Yogasutras as well as those on
Apastamba Dharma-sũtras (Adhyatama-patala-bhasya) are accepted by scholars as
authentic works of Adi Shankara. Among the Stotra (poetic works), the Daksinamurti
Stotra, the Bhajagovinda Stotra, the Sivanandalahari, the Carpata-panjarika,
the Visnu-satpadi, the Harimide, the Dasa-shloki, and the Krishna-staka are
likely to be authentic.
Shankara also authored Upadesasahasri, his most important
original philosophical work. Of other original Prakaranas (प्रकरण, monographs, treatise), seventy six works are attributed
to Adi Shankara. Modern era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as
Upadhyaya accept five and thirty nine works respectively as authentic.
Shankara's stotras considered authentic include those
dedicated to Krishna (Vaishnavism) and one to Shiva (Shaivism) – often
considered two different sects within Hinduism. Scholars suggest that these
stotra are not sectarian, but essentially Advaitic and reach for a unified
universal view of Vedanta.
Adi Shankara's commentary on the Brahma Sutras is the
oldest surviving. However, in that commentary, he mentions older commentaries
like those of Dravida, Bhartrprapancha and others which are either lost or yet
to be found.
Historical and cultural impact
Historical context
Shankara lived in the time of the so-called "Late
classical Hinduism", which lasted from 650 till 1100 CE. This era was one
of political instability that followed Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th
century CE.It was a time of social and cultural change as the ideas of
Buddhism, Jainism and various traditions within Hinduism were competing for
members. Buddhism in particular had emerged as a powerful influence in India's
spiritual traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st millennium CE. Shankara,
and his contemporaries, made a significant contribution in understanding
Buddhism and the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the extant ideas,
particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, making it India's
most important tradition for more than a thousand years.
Influence on Hinduism
Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of
Advaita Vedanta. He travelled all over India to help restore the study of the
Vedas. His teachings and tradition form the basis of Smartism and have
influenced Sant Mat lineages.
He introduced the Pancayatana form of worship, the
simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and
Devi. Shankara explained that all deities were but different forms of the one
Brahman, the invisible Supreme Being.
Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two
seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism, namely Atman and
Brahman. Isaeva states Shankara's influence included reforming Hinduism,
founding monasteries, edifying disciples, disputing opponents and engaging in
philosophic activity that, in the eyes of Indian tradition, help revive
"the orthodox idea of the unity of all beings" and Vedanta thought.
Prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed,
but did not occupy a dominant position within the Vedanta. According to
Nakamura, it was only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various
sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to
form the basis of their doctrines," whereby "its theoretical influence
upon the whole of Indian society became final and definitive."
Mathas
Shankara is regarded as the founder of the DaSanami
Sampradaya of Hindu monasticism and Ṣaṇmata of Smarta tradition. He unified the
theistic sects into a common framework of Shanmata system. Advaita Vedanta is,
at least in the west, primarily known as a philosophical system. But it is also
a tradition of renunciation. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:
Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were
members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the
same values, attitudes and metaphysics.
Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of
Shiva, established the Dashanami Sampradaya, organizing a section of the
Ekadandi monks under an umbrella grouping of ten names. Several other Hindu
monastic and Ekadandi traditions remained outside the organisation of the Dasanamis.
Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects
or names under four Maṭhas (Sanskrit: मठ)
(monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvaraka in the West, Jagannatha Puri in
the East, Sringeri in the South and Badrikashrama in the North. Each math was
headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continues the Vedanta
Sampradaya.
Yet, according to Pandey, these Mathas were not
established by Shankara himself, but were originally ashrams established by
Vibhaņdaka and his son ŖșyaSŗnga. Shankara inherited the ashrams at Dvaraka and
Sringeri, and shifted the ashram at Sŗngaverapura to BadarikaSrama, and the ashram
at AngadeSa to Jagannatha Puri.
The advaita sampradaya is not a Saiva sect, despite the
historical links with Shaivism:
Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of
Siva and Visnu equally with that of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti,
Ganapati and others.
Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more
influence among Saiva communities than among Vaisnava communities. The greatest
influence of the gurus of the advaita tradition has been among followers of the
Smartha Tradition, who integrate the domestic Vedic ritual with devotional
aspects of Hinduism.
According to Nakamura, these mathas contributed to the
influence of Shankara, which was "due to institutional factors". The
mathas which he built exist until today, and preserve the teachings and
influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars before him
came to be forgotten with the passage of time".
The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya
Mathas founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.
Shishya
(lineage)
|
Direction
|
Maṭha
|
Mahavakya
|
Veda
|
Sampradaya
|
Padmapada
|
East
|
Govardhana Piṭhaṃ
|
Prajnanam brahma (Consciousness is Brahman)
|
Rig Veda
|
Bhogavala
|
SureSvara
|
South
|
Sringeri Sarada Piṭhaṃ
|
Aham brahmasmi (I am Brahman)
|
Yajur Veda
|
Bhūrivala
|
Hastamalakacarya
|
West
|
Dvaraka Piṭhaṃ
|
Tattvamasi (That thou art)
|
Sama Veda
|
Kitavala
|
Toṭakacarya
|
North
|
Jyotirmaṭha Piṭhaṃ
|
Ayamatma brahma (This Atman is Brahman)
|
Atharva Veda
|
Nandavala
|
Film
· In 1977 Jagadguru Aadisankaran, a Malayalam film directed
by P. Bhaskaran was released in which Murali Mohan plays the role of Adult Aadi
Sankaran and Master Raghu plays childhood.
·
In 1983 a film directed by G.V. Iyer named Adi
Shankaracharya was premiered, the first film ever made entirely in Sanskrit
language in which all of Adi Shankaracharya's works were compiled. The movie
received the Indian National Film Awards for Best Film, Best Screenplay, Best
Cinematography and Best Audiography.
·
In 2013, a film Sri Jagadguru Aadi Sankara directed by
J.K. Bharavi in Telugu Language was completed and released.
Books:
1. Sankara Acarya Biography –
Monastic Tradition Archived 8 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
2. "Adi Shankara's four
Amnaya Peethams". Archived from the original on 26 June 2006. Retrieved
2006-08-20.
Further reading
·
Ingalls, Daniel H.H. (1954). "Saṁkara's Arguments
against the Buddhists". Philosophy East and West. 3 (4): 291–306.
doi:10.2307/1397287. JSTOR 1397287.
·
Mishra, Parameshwar Nath (2003), "Era of Adi
Shankaracharya 507 B.C.–475 B.C.", Howrah Samskriti Rakshak Parishad,
West Bengal.
·
Mishra, Parameshwar Nath, "Amit Kalrekha", 3
vols. (in Hindi), Howrah Samskriti Rakshak Parishad, West Bengal.
·
Succession of Shankaracharyas (a chronology) (from
Gaudapada onwards)
·
Reigle, David (2001). "The Original
Sankaracarya" (PDF). Fohat. 5 (3): 57–60, 70–71.
·
Frank Whaling (1979), Sankara and Buddhism, Journal of
Indian Philosophy, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1–42
·
"Sri Shankaracharya in Cambodia..?" by S.
Srikanta Sastri
·
Navone, J.J. (1956). "Sankara and the Vedic
Tradition". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 17 (2): 248.
doi:10.2307/2104222. JSTOR 2104222.
·
Biderman, Shlomo (1978). "Sankara and the
Buddhists". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 6 (4). doi:10.1007/BF00218430.
·
Rukmani, T.S. (2003). "Dr. Richard de Smet and
Sankara's Advaita". Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies. 16.
doi:10.7825/2164-6279.1295.
·
A Questioning Approach: Learning from Sankara's Pedagogic
Techniques, Jacqueline Hirst, Contemporary Education Dialogue, Vol. 2, No. 2,
pp. 137–169
Websites:
