Abstract: The spiritual traditions of Sanatana Dharma are grounded not in sectarianism but in philosophical plurality, distinct darsanas (viewpoints) offering varied yet harmonious pathways to the ultimate truth. Among these, Sankhya, Yoga, and Vedanta represent three deeply influential schools that differ in their methodologies and metaphysical postulations, yet converge in their final aim: the transcendence of suffering and realization of the Self (atma-jnana or moksa). This article explores these three paths as rigorous spiritual disciplines and knowledge systems. Drawing upon the Sankhya Karika, Patanjala Yoga Sutras, Upanisads, and Vedanta texts, it examines their epistemological foundations, ontological models, soteriological goals, and interrelation within the non-dual framework of Sanatana Dharma. By retaining fidelity to Sanskrit source texts and eschewing comparative religion, this study upholds the intrinsic philosophical unity and diversity of the Vedic tradition.
Introduction: Paths of Inquiry, Not
Conflict
The word darsana in Sanskrit implies “a
vision” or “way of seeing,” and in the context of Indian philosophy, it
signifies systematic frameworks through which reality is discerned and lived.
Far from dogmatic exclusivism, the Vedic tradition encourages multiple
philosophical routes to the same transcendent truth. As the Rg Veda
affirms:
एकं
सद्विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति।
(Rg Veda, 1.164.46)
"Truth is one; the wise call it by various
names."
Among the sad-darsanas (six classical schools
of Indian philosophy), Sankhya, Yoga, and Vedanta stand out as experiential
disciplines rooted in liberation-oriented metaphysics. While Sankhya emphasizes
analytical discrimination (viveka), Yoga emphasizes practical discipline
(abhyasa), and Vedanta emphasizes self-inquiry (atma-vichara),
all three converge in their ultimate goal: the cessation of suffering and the
realization of the eternal Self.
Sankhya: The Path of Discriminative
Knowledge (Viveka-Jnana)
Origins and Textual Authority:
Sankhya is the oldest of the systematic darsanas,
attributed traditionally to the sage Kapila, and systematized in the Sankhya Karika
of Isvarakrsna (circa 4th century CE). It is classified as nirIsvara—non-theistic—not
due to atheism in the Western sense, but because it postulates no need for a
creator-God to explain the cosmos.
Ontology: Dualism of Purusa and Prakrti:
Sankhya posits two ultimate realities:
·
Purusa: Pure consciousness, passive, eternal,
unchanging, and many in number.
·
Prakrti: Primordial matter, unconscious,
dynamic, composed of the three gunas - sattva, rajas, and tamas.
Creation arises when Prakrti comes into
proximity with Purusa, setting off an evolutionary cascade (parinama) of
tattvas (principles), leading to mind (manas), ego (ahankara),
senses (indriyas), and the gross elements (mahabhutas).
Liberation (kaivalya) occurs when the Purusa realizes it is not the
mind-body complex but the witnessing Self.
Liberation through Viveka:
The primary soteriological method in Sankhya
is discriminative knowledge (viveka-jnana). By sustained contemplation
on the distinction between the transient (anitya) Prakrti and the
eternal (nitya) Purusa, one awakens to one’s true nature.
पुरुषार्थशून्यानां गुणानां प्रतिप्रसवः कैवल्यम्।
(Sankhya Karika, 68)
"The reversal of the gunas to their
primal form, when they no longer serve the purpose of Purusa, is Kaivalya
(liberation)."
Yoga: The Path of Discipline and
Integration
Foundational Texts and Structure:
Yoga, as a darsana, is expounded in the Patanjala
Yoga Sutras, attributed to the sage Patanjali. It is closely allied with Sankhya
in metaphysics but adds a practical, eight-limbed path (asṭanga yoga)
for the purification of body and mind.
Philosophical Premise and Goal:
Yoga agrees with Sankhya’s dualism: Purusa is
the conscious seer; Prakrti is the seen. The ignorance (avidya) that
causes identification of the Purusa with the modifications of the mind (citta-vrttis)
is the source of bondage.
Patanjali begins his system with unmatched
clarity:
योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः॥
(Yoga Sutra, 1.2)
"Yoga is the cessation of the
modifications of the mind."
When the mind becomes still, the seer abides
in its own nature (tada drasṭuh svarupe’vasthanam). This state is
liberation.
Methodology: The Asṭanga Path:
1.
Yama: ethical restraints (non-violence,
truth, celibacy, non-stealing, non-possessiveness)
2.
Niyama:
personal
observances (cleanliness, contentment, austerity, self-study, surrender to Isvara)
3.
Asana: physical posture
4.
Pranayama:
breath regulation
5.
Pratyahara: withdrawal of the senses
6.
Dharana:
concentration
7.
Dhyana: meditation
8.
Samadhi:
absorption
Through this path, the yogi attains viveka-khyati,
discriminative insight and finally kaivalya.
तदा
क्लेशकर्मनिवृत्तिः॥
(Yoga Sutra, 4.30)
"Then, all afflictions and karmas
cease."
Vedanta: The Path of Self-Inquiry and
Non-Dual Realization
Scriptural Basis and Schools:
Vedanta, the “end of the Vedas,” is rooted in
the Upanisads, Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad GIta. Its most prominent form is
Advaita Vedanta, established by Adi Sankaracarya (8th century CE), which posits
a radical non-dualism (advaita) between the Self (Atman) and the
Absolute (Brahman).
Ontology: Brahman Alone Is Real:
The central assertion of Vedanta is:
ब्रह्म सत्यं जगन्मिथ्या जीवो ब्रह्मैव नापरः॥
"Brahman is the only truth, the world is
illusory, and the individual self is none other than Brahman." - Sankara
Brahman is infinite, formless, birthless, and
changeless. The jiva is none other than Brahman, but due to ignorance (avidya),
identifies with body and mind.
This ignorance is removed by jnana direct
knowledge of the Self, gained through sravana (listening to scripture), manana
(rational reflection), and nididhyasana (deep meditation).
Liberation (Moksa) in Advaita:
Liberation is not the attainment of something
new, but the recognition of what always is.
अहं
ब्रह्मास्मि।
(Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, 1.4.10)
"I am Brahman."
यत्र
तु द्वितीयमिव भयं भवति।
(Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, 1.4.2)
"Where there is duality, there alone fear
arises."
Liberation is freedom from fear, duality, and
bondage, achieved through self-knowledge (atma-jnana), not action.
Confluence of the Three: One Goal,
Different Lenses
While these systems differ in metaphysical
emphasis, Sankhya’s dualism, Yoga’s practical psychology, Vedanta’s non-dualism,
their soteriological goal is shared:
·
The
cessation of suffering (duhkha nivrtti)
·
The
transcendence of ignorance (avidya)
·
Abidance
in the Self (svarupa-sthiti)
Sankhya provides the intellectual framework,
Yoga the practical discipline, and Vedanta the metaphysical resolution.
Together, they offer a complete spiritual methodology.
The GIta synthesizes all three:
योगस्थः कुरु कर्माणि सङ्गं त्यक्त्वा धनञ्जय।
सिद्ध्यसिद्ध्योः समो भूत्वा समत्वं योग उच्यते॥
(Bhagavad GIta, 2.48)
"Perform your actions established in
Yoga, O Dhananjaya, abandoning attachment, being the same in success and failure,
this equanimity is Yoga."
Here, the intellectual discernment of Sankhya
(buddhi-yoga), the disciplined action of Yoga, and the ultimate
realization of Vedanta are harmonized.
Conclusion: An Integrated Vision of
Liberation
Sanatana Dharma does not prescribe uniformity.
It celebrates unity in diversity, a multiplicity of darsanas leading to a
singular telos: liberation from the cycle of ignorance, bondage, and suffering.
Whether one walks the path of viveka (discrimination), abhyasa
(discipline), or jnana (inquiry), the final destination is the same: the
direct realization of one’s true nature, which is free, unchanging, and
infinite.
Thus, Sankhya, Yoga, and Vedanta are not
competitive systems but complementary lenses revealing, in layered depth, the
perennial wisdom of the Vedas.
References
1.
Isvarakrsna,
Sankhya Karika, with Gaudapada Bhasya and Vacaspatimisra’s TattvakaumudI,
Motilal Banarsidass.
2.
Patanjali,
Yoga Sutra, with Vyasa Bhasya, Trans. Swami Hariharananda, Advaita
Ashrama.
3.
Sankaracarya,
Vivekacudamani, Advaita Ashrama.
4.
Bhagavad
GIta, with Commentary
by Swami Chinmayananda, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust.
5.
Brhadaranyaka
Upanisad, with Sankara Bhasya,
Ramakrishna Math.
6.
Radhakrishnan,
S., Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, Oxford University Press.
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Dasgupta,
Surendranath, A History of Indian Philosophy, Cambridge University
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Kapil
Kapoor (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rupa & Co.
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Hiryanna,
M., Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass.
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