Abstract
Sanatana Dharma, often referred to as Hinduism, is one of
the oldest spiritual and philosophical traditions, rich in its diversity and
continuity. Unlike many other religious systems that have specific historical
origins, Sanatana Dharma is considered an eternal way of life, which adapts and
evolves with time but remains anchored in universal truths. Its journey can be
traced through distinct periods: the Vedic, Epic, Classical, and Modern eras.
This paper explores the evolution of Sanatana Dharma through these ages,
highlighting the key shifts in its practices, philosophical developments, and
how sacred texts have shaped the trajectory of this tradition. By examining the
Vedic, Epic, Classical, and Modern periods in detail, this research seeks to
provide a holistic understanding of Sanatana Dharma’s adaptability and its
continued relevance in contemporary society.
Keywords
Sanatana Dharma, Vedic Period, Epic Period, Classical
Period, Modern Hinduism, Bhagavad Gita, Karma, Dharma, Moksha, Dharma in Modern
Society, Hindu philosophy, Hindu sacred texts, Evolution of Hinduism
Introduction: Understanding the Continuity of
Sanatana Dharma
Sanatana Dharma, a term that loosely translates to the
Eternal Law, represents not only a religious tradition but a way of life and an
understanding of the universe and the individual’s place within it. Unlike
religions that have specific historical founders, such as Christianity or Islam,
Sanatana Dharma is considered to be the original and timeless truth, always
existing beyond the confines of time and space.
This evolutionary narrative covers four major periods in
the history of Sanatana Dharma: the Vedic, the Epic, the Classical, and the
Modern periods. The Vedic period laid the groundwork for spiritual and
philosophical concepts; the Epic period deepened these ideas with narratives of
divine beings and moral dilemmas; the Classical period introduced systematic
philosophies, practices, and texts; and finally, the Modern period saw
reinterpretations of these age-old traditions in the context of modernity,
colonialism, and globalization.
Each of these periods has contributed significantly to
the development of Sanatana Dharma, resulting in a rich and diverse
philosophical, spiritual, and ethical tradition that continues to influence
individuals and societies worldwide today.
The Vedic Period – The Dawn of Sanatana
Dharma
The Vedic period, roughly spanning from 1500 BCE to 500
BCE, marks the birth of Sanatana Dharma as we understand it today. The Vedas,
composed during this period, form the foundation of Hinduism. The Rigveda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda together provide the textual framework of
the tradition. These texts emphasize ritual worship, cosmological principles,
and the role of the individual in maintaining Dharma, both at a cosmic and
social level.
Key
Aspects of the Vedic Tradition
1.
Cosmic
Order (Rita): Central to the Vedic worldview is Rita, the cosmic order, which
is the natural law that governs the universe. It is through adherence to Rita
that the world remains in harmony, and the concept of Dharma is first
introduced. Dharma in the Vedic sense is the moral and ethical order that
sustains both the universe and society. As the world functions based on this
universal law, humans are encouraged to align their actions in accordance with
this order.
2.
Brahman
and Atman: In the Vedic texts, the concept of Brahman (universal consciousness)
and Atman (individual soul) begins to emerge. These concepts form the
cornerstone of Vedantic thought, which will evolve into Advaita Vedanta in
later years. Brahman is the ultimate reality, infinite, formless, and
omnipresent, while Atman represents the essence of the individual, which is also
fundamentally one with Brahman.
3.
Rituals
and Yajnas: The Vedic period is dominated by the performance of yajnas
(sacrificial rituals). These rituals were seen as a means to invoke the divine
forces and maintain harmony in the cosmos. The Brahmanas describe the rites and
procedures for performing these rituals, and the Aranyakas provide the
philosophical foundation for why such rituals were important.
Shloka
from Rigveda (10.90.1):
"ॐ तत् सत्, यद् ब्रह्मेण प्रजापतिर्महोदधिं प्रवृत्तं सच्चिदानन्दं परमं."
Translation: "Om, that is the truth, the eternal
reality, the supreme Brahman, the one who created the world, the source of all
knowledge and bliss."
The Upanishads, which arose towards the end of the Vedic
period, marked a shift in focus from external rituals to inner spiritual
inquiry. They introduced the concept of Moksha (liberation), emphasizing
self-realization and the realization that the Atman is ultimately the same as
Brahman.
Shloka
from Chandogya Upanishad (6.2.1):
"तत्त्वमसि, श्वेतकेतो।"
Translation: "Thou art that, O Shvetaketu."
(The realization of the self as Brahman.)
The Upanishads thus mark a critical point in the
evolution of Sanatana Dharma, shifting the focus from external practices to
internal knowledge and self-realization.
The Epic Period – Dharma in Action
The Epic period, spanning from approximately 500 BCE to
200 BCE, is represented by two of the most significant epics in Sanatana
Dharma: the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. These texts are not merely stories of
gods and heroes but also profound philosophical texts that explore the nature
of Dharma and the human condition.
Ramayana
– The Ideal of Dharma
The Ramayana, written by the sage Valmiki, narrates the
story of Rama, an incarnation of the god Vishnu, who embarks on an epic journey
to rescue his wife, Sita, from the demon king Ravana. The Ramayana teaches the
importance of Dharma through the figure of Rama, who is often seen as the ideal
man - a king, a husband, and a warrior, whose actions are guided by
righteousness, loyalty, and devotion.
The story of Sita represents the ideal of feminine
strength, devotion, and resilience. Together, the characters of Rama and Sita
embody the twin ideals of Dharma and Bhakti (devotion), setting the stage for
later Bhakti movements.
Shloka
from Ramayana (Ayodhya Kanda 2.71):
धर्मेण संरक्षणं जगतां,
चिरेण सद्भिरस्तु धर्मपल्लवम्।
Translation: "The world is upheld by Dharma, and it
is through righteousness and the efforts of the righteous that this world
survives."
Mahabharata
– The Epic of Dharma
The Mahabharata, written by Vyasa, is much more than a
story of a dynastic war. It explores complex moral and philosophical dilemmas,
especially in the form of the Bhagavad Gita, a conversation between Krishna and
Arjuna. In the Gita, Krishna imparts profound teachings on Dharma, Karma, and
the nature of the self. One of the central themes of the Mahabharata is the
idea that Dharma is context-dependent and complex. Yudhishthira's decision to
go to war, despite knowing its consequences, underscores the ambiguity of
Dharma when faced with moral dilemmas.
Shloka
from Bhagavad Gita (2.47):
कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन।
मा कर्मफलहेतुर्भूर्मा ते सङ्गोऽस्त्वकर्मणि॥
Translation: "You have a right to perform your
prescribed duties, but you are not entitled to the fruits of your actions.
Never consider yourself to be the cause of the results of your activities, nor
be attached to inaction."
The Bhagavad Gita introduces the idea of performing one's
duties without attachment to the results, a concept that becomes central to the
Karma Yoga tradition. It emphasizes the importance of selfless action,
devotion, and the pursuit of self-realization.
The Classical Period – Philosophical
Systematization
The Classical period of Hinduism (circa 200 BCE – 1200
CE) is marked by the emergence of systematic philosophical schools, or
Darshanas, which sought to codify and refine the teachings of the Vedas,
Upanishads, and Epics. Philosophical inquiry took a more structured form during
this period, as various thinkers and schools sought to interpret the nature of
reality, the self, and the divine.
Advaita
Vedanta – Non-Dualism
The most influential of the classical
schools was Advaita Vedanta, which was systematized by the philosopher Adi
Shankaracharya. Advaita (non-dualism) asserts that Atman (the individual soul)
is ultimately identical with Brahman (the supreme, universal reality). This
school emphasizes the illusory nature of the world (Maya) and teaches that
liberation (Moksha) comes from realizing the unity of the self with the
absolute.
Shloka
from Mandukya Upanishad (1):
अखण्डमण्डलाकारं यत् जगत् सर्वमव्ययम्।
तत्पदं दर्षितं येन तस्मै श्रीगुरवे नमः॥
Translation: "I bow to the Guru who has revealed the
Brahman, the indestructible essence that pervades the universe, which is beyond
birth and death."
In Advaita Vedanta, Maya (illusion) is seen as the force
that creates the appearance of multiplicity in the world, while the ultimate
truth is non-dual and indivisible. Shankaracharya’s commentaries on the
Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras laid the foundation for understanding the
non-dual nature of reality and the means of attaining Moksha through knowledge
and self-realization.
The Modern Era – Reinterpretation and Global
Influence
The Modern period (19th century – present) marks a time
when Sanatana Dharma began to undergo significant reinterpretation in response
to the challenges of colonialism, industrialization, and the global spread of
Western ideas. Leaders like Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, and Sri
Aurobindo redefined the teachings of Sanatana Dharma in the context of modern
issues.
Swami
Vivekananda and the Global Vision
Swami Vivekananda, in the late 19th century, presented
Sanatana Dharma on the world stage at the Parliament of the World’s Religions
in Chicago (1893). He emphasized the universality of Hindu principles,
especially the idea of self-realization and the unity of all religions. He
promoted Karma Yoga (the path of selfless action) and Jnana Yoga (the path of
knowledge) as essential means for individual and collective empowerment.
Mahatma
Gandhi – Non-Violence and Dharma
Mahatma Gandhi interpreted Dharma through the lens of
non-violence (Ahimsa) and truth (Satya). His version of Sanatana Dharma was
deeply concerned with social reform, the upliftment of the marginalized
(especially the Dalits), and the practice of non-violence as the highest form
of spirituality.
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