The Vedas Sanskrit: veda, "knowledge" are a large body of knowledge
texts originating in the ancient Indian
subcontinent. Composed in Vedic
Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and
the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruseya, which means
"not of a man, superhuman" and "impersonal, authorless".
Vedas are also called sruti ("what is heard") literature, distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are
called smrti ("what is
remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered
revelations seen by ancient sages after
intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since
ancient times. In the Hindu Epic the
Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were
skillfully created by Rishis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a
carpenter builds a chariot.
There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and
the Atharveda. Each Veda has been sub classified into four major text
types – the Samhitas (mantras and
benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on
rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and
the Upanishads (texts discussing
meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).
The various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of
Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are
classified as "orthodox" (astika). Other sramana traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism,
which did not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as
"heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nastika) schools. Despite their differences, just like the texts of the
śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and
concepts.
Chronology
The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to roughly
1700–1100 BC, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the
Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium
BC, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the
composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra
samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the
age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished
Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500
to c. 500-400 BC. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of
the 14th century BC the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to
the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BC (Patanjali) as a terminus ante quem for
all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BC (the early Iron Age) as terminus
post quem for the Atharvaveda.
Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition, preserved with precision with the help of
elaborate mnemonic techniques. A
literary tradition is traceable in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva
recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century
BC; however oral tradition of transmission remained active. Witzel suggests the
possibility of written Vedic texts towards the end of 1st millennium BCE. Some scholars such as Jack Goody state that "the
Vedas are not the product of an oral society", basing this view by
comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from
various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbia and other cultures, then
noting that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been
composed and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down. However, adds Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both
a written and oral tradition, calling it a "parallel products of a
literate society".
Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch
bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few
hundred years. The Sampurnanand Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal that are
dated from the 11th century onwards.
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