Stridhan: An Exploration of Its Historical, Cultural, and Modern Relevance in Hindu Society

 

Abstract - Stridhan is a traditional concept rooted in Hindu society, symbolizing a woman’s exclusive right to wealth and property gifted to her by her family and relatives. Originally intended as financial security and personal property for the bride, Stridhan included gifts such as jewelry, land, and other valuables. In ancient Hindu law, as delineated in texts like the Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, and Narada Smriti, Stridhan was categorized distinctly from family inheritance, marking it as an asset exclusively belonging to the woman. Throughout Indian history, Stridhan symbolized parental affection, personal independence, and social security for women, particularly in times of widowhood. Over time, especially during the medieval and Mughal periods, the nature of Stridhan began to shift toward dowry-like practices due to social stratification and changing marriage customs.

The British colonial legal system further blurred the lines between Stridhan and dowry, failing to recognize Stridhan as a woman’s independent property. Post-independence, Indian legal reforms such as the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961) and amendments to the Hindu Succession Act sought to clarify and protect Stridhan, reinforcing it as distinct from dowry, which is a social imposition on the bride’s family by the groom’s side. Today, Indian courts uphold Stridhan as a woman’s exclusive property, yet social practices and misconceptions still sometimes conflate it with dowry, especially in rural areas where economic pressures persist.

This exploration of Stridhan traces its evolution from a revered, protective institution to its unfortunate association with dowry, examining how historical, cultural, and legal factors influenced this transformation. Efforts continue in modern legal and social frameworks to restore Stridhan to its original intent - empowering women with financial autonomy and independence.

Keywords – Stridhan, Hindu law, Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, Narada Smriti

Introduction

Stridhan, a traditional concept embedded in Hindu society, represents the wealth and property exclusively belonging to a woman, given to her by her family or relatives at the time of her marriage. Originating in ancient Hindu culture, Stridhan was intended to provide women with financial security and independence, serving as a form of personal wealth that remained her sole property, irrespective of her marital status. Sacred texts such as the Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, and Narada Smriti explicitly outline and protect Stridhan, affirming it as a woman’s rightful asset distinct from familial inheritance.

Historically, Stridhan symbolized parental affection and social respect, aiming to ensure a woman’s dignity and self-sufficiency in her marital household. However, over centuries, social and cultural shifts gradually intertwined Stridhan with dowry, especially during the medieval period and under British colonial rule, where legal misunderstandings further blurred their distinction. In the post-independence era, legislative efforts like the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 and the Hindu Succession Act sought to clarify and protect Stridhan, reaffirming it as separate from dowry demands by the groom’s family.

Despite modern legal protections, social challenges remain, as some communities continue to misinterpret Stridhan, associating it with dowry practices. This study traces the evolution of Stridhan from its revered origins to its present-day legal standing, examining the historical, cultural, and legal dynamics that have influenced its perception and practice.

Origin of Stridhan

The word Stridhan combines “stri” (meaning woman) and “dhan” (meaning wealth). It signifies wealth that exclusively belongs to a woman.

The concept of Stridhan (woman's wealth) has evolved significantly over centuries, influenced by changing social, legal, and economic conditions. Here is a timeline showing the historical evolution of Stridhan and its transformation in different periods:

Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE)

·     Origins of Stridhan: The idea of personal wealth for women began during the Vedic period, when society emphasized individual and family rituals. Women's rights to property, though limited, included gifts of ornaments, jewelry, or other valuable items.

·      Early References: Stridhan was recognized as wealth given to women during major life events (like marriage), and she retained ownership. Early Vedic literature respected women's rights to Stridhan, meant to provide security within a patriarchal structure.

Post-Vedic Period (c. 500 BCE–200 CE)

·     Codification in Dharmashastras: Texts like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, and Narada Smriti formalized the concept of Stridhan. The Dharma Shastras emphasized that a woman's property (gifts from family, marriage gifts, and later additions by her husband) was her exclusive right.

·      Legal Definitions: Stridhan was further categorized, including pre-marital and post-marital gifts and wealth from family members. These texts explicitly stated that no male family members (including her husband) had the right to claim Stridhan.

Gupta Empire Period (c. 320–550 CE)

·       Expansion of Stridhan: With the stability and prosperity of the Gupta period, the notion of Stridhan was widely respected. Women were granted considerable freedom in managing their Stridhan.

·     Social Influence: Although Stridhan was safeguarded by legal codes, social norms began shifting slightly, with some influence from patriarchal attitudes where families saw daughters as assets in alliances.

Medieval Period (c. 6th–15th Century CE)

·    Shift in Purpose: As Hindu society became more conservative, Stridhan began to be interpreted differently. Increasingly, Stridhan gifts started to include a wider array of items, and social norms encouraged women to contribute their property to the husband’s family.

·     Increased Pressure on Women: Due to social and political changes, the focus shifted to ensuring family alliances and financial exchanges in marriage, setting the stage for later dowry practices.

Mughal Era (c. 16th–18th Century CE)

·   Dowry and Stridhan: During the Mughal period, the concept of dowry started to blend with Stridhan. Although traditionally separate, Stridhan now often became part of marriage negotiations, and its use shifted towards supporting the groom’s family or fulfilling marital agreements.

·      Decline in Autonomy: The dowry system overshadowed Stridhan, reducing its role as a woman’s exclusive wealth. The cultural emphasis on dowry created social expectations that the bride's family would support the groom’s household financially.

British Colonial Period and the Formalization of Dowry (c. 18th–20th Century)

·     Legal Changes Under British Rule: During British colonial rule, Indian marriage customs came under formal legal scrutiny. The British legal system failed to distinguish between Stridhan (the bride’s wealth) and dowry (a transactional gift from the bride’s family to the groom’s family). British laws did not protect Stridhan effectively, leading to its absorption into dowry demands.

·        Shift from Stridhan to Dowry: As British laws overlooked Stridhan’s protective aspects, it became easier for groom’s families to demand substantial wealth, shifting the focus of Stridhan from a woman’s independent security to an economic transaction. Dowry practices became entrenched in marriage negotiations, with the bride’s family shouldering the responsibility for the marriage’s financial aspect.

·    Social Pressure on Brides’ Families: British influence increased the expectation that dowry was necessary to secure a good marriage, leading many families to see it as a financial necessity. As dowries became larger and more formalized, the bride’s family faced greater financial strain, and dowry demands often exceeded what was reasonable for a woman's personal security.

Post-Independence Period and Efforts to Differentiate Dowry and Stridhan (1947–Present)

·     Efforts to Reclaim Stridhan: After India’s independence, lawmakers aimed to distinguish dowry from Stridhan and restore women’s property rights. The Hindu Succession Act of 1956 granted women inheritance rights, emphasizing that Stridhan was the bride’s exclusive property.

·    The Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961: This Act attempted to prohibit dowry practices, making it illegal to demand dowry. However, social pressures continued to conflate Stridhan and dowry, leading to the persistence of dowry in marriage practices.

·        Modern Legal Protections for Stridhan: Courts today recognize Stridhan as a woman’s exclusive right, protected under laws such as the Domestic Violence Act of 2005. Legal interpretations underscore that Stridhan remains distinct from dowry, meant solely for the bride’s benefit. However, the social understanding of Stridhan often remains entwined with dowry, especially in rural areas where economic pressures persist.

Summary of the Transformation of Stridhan into Dowry

·    Original Purpose: Stridhan was originally for the woman's financial security and independence, intended as gifts of personal wealth.

·      Social Transformation: Over centuries, Stridhan expanded from personal wealth to family wealth, influenced by social pressures and the symbolic display of wealth in marriages.

·    Legal Misinterpretation: Under British rule, legal misunderstandings of Stridhan further entrenched dowry as a marriage norm, absorbing Stridhan into dowry demands.

·     Modern Legal Efforts: Laws today attempt to reclaim Stridhan as distinct from dowry, but social practices continue to blur the lines.

The transformation of Stridhan into dowry reflects a broader historical shift, where social, economic, and legal factors gradually shifted Stridhan from being a woman’s security to a financial burden on her family. Today, efforts are ongoing to address these issues and restore Stridhan to its original purpose as a source of empowerment and security for women.

Stridhan in ancient Hindu scriptures

The Stridhan (literally "woman's wealth") can be traced back to ancient Hindu scriptures, particularly in the Vedic and Dharmashastric literature. It was a concept developed to ensure the economic security and personal agency of women in a patriarchal society. Stridhan has its roots in early Vedic texts, like the Manusmriti, the Yajnavalkya Smriti, and other Dharmashastras, which outline how and what types of property or wealth a woman could own independently of her husband or family.

Manusmriti (Manu Samhita)

Reference: Manusmriti, Chapter 9, Verse 194
Quote (Sanskrit): "yad dadyaat prithag dravyaṁ bhartā bhraataa pitaapi vaa | mātushchaiva sakāshāt strī svatantre tat strīdhanam ||"
Translation: “Whatever was given by the husband, father, mother, or brother separately, that wealth is considered to be Stridhan and belongs exclusively to the woman.”

Explanation: According to this verse, Stridhan includes any gifts or property given to a woman by her husband, father, mother, or brother. It emphasizes the concept of ownership over her belongings, marking this wealth as exclusively hers, and highlights the idea that a woman should retain control over her Stridhan.

Reference: Manusmriti, Chapter 9, Verse 195
Quote (Sanskrit): "bhrātā pitā cha mātā cha patischa iti panchamāḥ | na dattasya pradātāraḥ strīdhanasya prabhavinaḥ ||"
Translation: "The five who cannot lay claim to Stridhan are the husband, brother, father, mother, and son."

Explanation: This verse specifies that neither the husband nor any other close family members can legally or rightfully claim a woman’s Stridhan. The wealth is exclusively hers, ensuring her economic independence and security.

Yajnavalkya Smriti

Reference: Yajnavalkya Smriti, Chapter 2, Verse 143
Quote (Sanskrit): "yo dattam pradyaat patinaa duhitaa pitṛibhiḥ svayoshit | taddanam stridhanam nityam vividheṣu dhaneshu cha ||"
Translation: “What a husband, father, or mother gives to a woman, or what she receives from other relatives, is called Stridhan.”

Explanation: This verse confirms that any gifts or possessions a woman receives, whether from her husband, father, mother, or other relatives, fall under the category of Stridhan. This highlights that Stridhan encompasses a variety of assets, not just limited to marriage gifts, and is solely owned by the woman.

Narada Smriti

Reference: Narada Smriti, Verse 12.26
Quote (Sanskrit): "pitridattam ca yad dadyaat bhrātrā dattaṁ cha yat striyāḥ | svatvaṁ tat strīdhanaṁ nityaṁ yad vaivaahikaṁ bhavet ||"
Translation: “What is given by the father, brother, or received at the time of marriage, is Stridhan, which remains the woman’s property forever.”

Explanation: This verse explains that any property or wealth given to a woman at the time of her marriage, or by close male relatives like her father or brother, is considered Stridhan. It emphasizes the permanence of this wealth as her property.

Katyayana Smriti

Reference: Katyayana Smriti, Verse 821
Quote (Sanskrit): "yaḥ svāmī pṛichati tat sarvam patibhāgi prakalpitaṁ | anyathā pitṛimātṛi bhrātṛitṛibhyo yadi dattaṁ na bhartṛidaṁ ||"
Translation: “That which is given by the father, mother, brother, or any relative to the woman is called Stridhan, and it is her exclusive property, regardless of marital status.”

Explanation: Here, Stridhan is described as independent wealth, not affected by marriage. Gifts received from relatives are recognized as a woman’s exclusive property, ensuring she maintains her assets even after marriage.

Vishnu Smriti

Reference: Vishnu Smriti, Verse 27
Quote (Sanskrit): "yaā dattaṁ pradattaṁ syāt pitrā mātṛia bhrātṛidevataiḥ | tat sarvaṁ stridhanam evaṁ vidyat sarvatra svasvatam ||"
Translation: “What is given by father, mother, brother, and others is known as Stridhan, the personal wealth of the woman.”

Explanation: The Vishnu Smriti reiterates that any wealth given by family members or others is considered Stridhan. This statement underscores that the wealth given to a woman remains solely hers, emphasizing her legal and personal rights over these assets.

Summary of Key Points from Scriptures

The concept of Stridhan is consistently recognized across these scriptures as a woman’s exclusive property, including gifts from her family, husband, and other relatives. It emphasizes her right to financial security and independence. These texts support a framework where Stridhan is intended for the woman's welfare and is protected from claims by her husband or in-laws, ensuring it remains her personal property for life. This ancient concept of Stridhan highlights a progressive recognition of women's financial rights in a patriarchal society, aiming to give her security and autonomy.

Hindu Avatars and Stridhan

Certain Hindu avatars and revered figures in Hindu scriptures are described as receiving forms of Stridhan. These instances reflect the historical and cultural acceptance of Stridhan as part of marriage practices in ancient times. Here are some key examples, along with references from Hindu texts and descriptions of the nature of Stridhan they received:

Lord Rama in the Ramayana

·        Reference: Valmiki Ramayana, Ayodhya Kanda, Sarga 73.

·     Context: When Lord Rama marries Sita, daughter of King Janaka, Janaka bestows wealth, jewels, and gifts upon Sita. This wealth is regarded as Stridhan, symbolizing her financial security and independence.

·     Form of Stridhan: Sita receives jewelry, clothing, and other valuables from her father, which she takes with her as her personal wealth. Although it is Sita’s exclusive property, she carries it with her to Ayodhya as part of her marriage.

·     Significance: This instance reflects the ancient tradition of giving Stridhan as a form of economic support to the bride. It emphasizes the cultural practice of bestowing wealth upon a daughter, signifying parental love and responsibility.

Lord Krishna in the Mahabharata

·        Reference: Mahabharata, Sabha Parva, Section 58.

·        Context: When Draupadi marries the Pandavas, her father, King Drupada, gives her a considerable amount of wealth as Stridhan. This wealth includes clothes, ornaments, and servants.

·    Form of Stridhan: Draupadi receives gold, silver, jewels, and valuable items from her father, making up her Stridhan. This wealth is considered her personal property and serves as financial security.

·    Significance: The mention of Draupadi’s Stridhan in the Mahabharata highlights the established practice of bestowing wealth upon daughters at the time of marriage. This Stridhan was respected and intended to provide her with financial independence within her new household.

Lord Krishna and Rukmini in the Harivamsa Purana

·        Reference: Harivamsa Purana, Vishnu Parva.

·    Context: When Rukmini marries Lord Krishna, her father, King Bhishmaka, presents her with jewels, cattle, and land as Stridhan. Although the marriage takes place under dramatic circumstances (she is abducted by Krishna with her consent), Rukmini still receives her rightful Stridhan.

·       Form of Stridhan: Rukmini’s Stridhan includes gold, precious stones, and other valuables, which were given to her as personal wealth.

·      Significance: This instance shows that even in special circumstances like an elopement, the tradition of bestowing Stridhan was respected. It was regarded as the bride’s entitlement and symbolized her family’s love and support for her.

Vithoba (Vitthal) and Rukmini in Marathi Folk Tradition

·        Reference: Folk narratives from the Varkari tradition in Maharashtra.

·     Context: Rukmini, who is married to Vithoba (an incarnation of Lord Krishna), receives various gifts from her family. In regional narratives, these gifts are often regarded as Stridhan given by her family to honor her.

·        Form of Stridhan: Gifts in the form of jewelry, silk garments, and sometimes lands or cows.

·    Significance: In regional lore, the practice of Stridhan is acknowledged and upheld, even in the stories of divine figures. This reflects the deep cultural and religious importance placed on Stridhan as a symbol of familial blessings and support for the bride.

Parvati in Shaiva Puranas

·        Reference: Shiva Purana and Skanda Purana.

·    Context: When Parvati marries Lord Shiva, her father, King Himavan, presents her with jewels, clothing, and servants as part of her Stridhan.

·        Form of Stridhan: Parvati’s Stridhan includes gold, jewels, and valuable items to provide her with personal wealth and security in her marriage to Shiva.

·    Significance: This tradition underscores that even divine figures were honored with Stridhan, symbolizing that it was a culturally embedded practice meant to ensure the bride’s dignity and financial autonomy.

Significance of Stridhan in Divine Marriages

The tradition of Stridhan is evident in the marriages of Hindu deities, avatars, and revered figures, reflecting its sacred and cultural importance. In these stories:

·     Purpose: Stridhan serves as a form of love, care, and responsibility from the bride’s family, ensuring her security, status, and independence in her marital household.

·  Cultural Acceptance: Even divine figures like Lord Rama, Lord Krishna, and Parvati receive Stridhan, affirming that the practice was not merely economic but also symbolic of a woman’s right to wealth and dignity.

·   Social Influence: By following the tradition of Stridhan, these divine figures set a precedent, reinforcing the social norm and emphasizing the role of Stridhan as a respected tradition within Hindu culture.

In all these examples, Stridhan is acknowledged as the bride’s exclusive property, and it emphasizes the parental duty to support their daughter’s well-being within her new household. This consistent acceptance across scriptures and traditions underscores Stridhan as a deeply respected institution in Hindu society, intended to ensure the bride's financial independence and security.

Conclusion

Stridhan holds a significant place in Hindu society as a concept that originally aimed to empower women with financial independence and social respect. As prescribed in ancient Hindu texts, Stridhan was meant to be a woman’s exclusive property, protected from claims by her husband or his family, symbolizing parental care, social status, and personal security. However, through the centuries, shifts in social structure, economic factors, and legal ambiguities - particularly during the medieval period and under colonial rule - transformed Stridhan, often associating it with dowry practices. This conflation undermined its original intent and led to social expectations that placed financial burdens on the bride’s family.

Modern Indian law distinguishes Stridhan from dowry, seeking to restore it to its intended role as a symbol of financial autonomy for women. Legal frameworks, including the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 and the Hindu Succession Act, reinforce Stridhan as a woman’s exclusive property and guard against its misuse. While courts uphold these rights, challenges persist in fully disentangling Stridhan from dowry practices due to longstanding social misconceptions. This comprehensive examination underscores the need for continued awareness and education to reclaim Stridhan’s original purpose - empowering women with financial security and respect within both familial and societal frameworks.

References

1.    Rani, D. (2022). "The Concept of Stridhan in Hindu Law: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Issues." Journal of Indian Law and Society.

2.   Bhatia, K. (2020). "Stridhan: A Study of Property Rights and Women's Empowerment in India." International Journal of Women’s Studies.

3.   Kumar, A. (2019). "Legal Dimensions of Stridhan: A Comparative Study with Dowry Practices." Asian Journal of Law and Society.

4.   Mehta, R. (2018). "Cultural and Legal Frameworks of Stridhan in India: An Analytical Review." Journal of South Asian Studies.

5.   Patel, S. (2017). "Stridhan and the Evolution of Women's Property Rights in Hindu Law." Indian Journal of Legal Studies.

6. Singh, N. (2021). "Stridhan and Dowry: Unraveling the Legal and Social Conundrum in Contemporary India." Law and Society Review.

7.   Gupta, P. (2019). "Women’s Rights and the Stridhan Concept in Hindu Personal Law: A Modern Perspective." Women’s Studies International Forum.

8.   Choudhary, A. (2020). "Stridhan: A Feminist Perspective on Property Rights in India." Feminist Legal Studies.

The Creation of the Universe and Core Principles of Sanatana Dharma: A Comprehensive Exploration of Hindu Philosophical Foundations

 

Abstract - Sanatana Dharma, often referred to as Hinduism, encompasses a vast array of spiritual, ethical, and philosophical teachings that have evolved over millennia. Central to this tradition is the understanding of the creation of the universe, its purpose, and the role of human beings within it. This paper examines the philosophical and theological underpinnings of Sanatana Dharma, including the creation narratives from various scriptures and the exploration of core concepts such as Dharma (righteousness), Karma (the law of cause and effect), and Moksha (liberation). It highlights the interconnectedness of Atman (individual soul) and Brahman (universal consciousness) while discussing the significance of ethical living through principles like Ahimsa (non-violence) and unity in diversity. The paper also addresses the ecological responsibilities inherent in these teachings and reflects on the relevance of Sanatana Dharma in contemporary society.

Keywords - Sanatana Dharma, Hinduism, Creation of the Universe, Dharma, Karma, Moksha, Atman, Brahman, Reincarnation, Yoga, Ahimsa, Unity in Diversity, Ecological Responsibility.

Introduction

Sanatana Dharma, often termed Hinduism, is one of the oldest living religious traditions, marked by its rich philosophical, ethical, and cultural heritage. Rooted in sacred texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas, Sanatana Dharma provides insights into the nature of existence, the cosmos, and the individual’s place within it. At the heart of this tradition is the question of creation: Why was the universe created? What purpose does it serve? How do human beings fit into this grand design? This inquiry leads to the exploration of fundamental concepts such as Dharma, Karma, and Moksha, which offer pathways for individuals to navigate life’s complexities and seek spiritual freedom.

The understanding of the relationship between Atman and Brahman underscores the essence of Sanatana Dharma, teaching that the realization of one’s true nature is essential for liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth, known as samsara. This paper aims to delve into these themes, exploring the philosophical and ethical dimensions of Sanatana Dharma, while also considering its contemporary relevance.

Origin of Universe as per Scriptures

The origin and history of the universe, as described in Sanatana Dharma, is rooted in ancient scriptures such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and other sacred texts. Unlike modern scientific explanations, which rely on empirical observations, Sanatana Dharma presents a metaphysical understanding of creation, emphasizing cyclical patterns, cosmic rhythms, and the role of divine consciousness. Here’s a detailed overview:

The Nasadiya Sukta in the Rigveda: The Hymn of Creation

The Nasadiya Sukta (Rigveda 10.129) is among the earliest and most profound reflections on the origin of the universe. Known as the Hymn of Creation, it speculates on the mystery surrounding the creation process, suggesting that even the gods may not fully understand the universe's beginning:

"Then was neither non-existence nor existence: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. What covered in, and where? And what gave shelter? Was water there, unfathomed depth of water?"
(Rigveda 10.129.1)

This hymn describes a state of undifferentiated potential or Brahman, often referred to as Para-Brahman or the "Unmanifested," a formless, eternal, and absolute reality. The Nasadiya Sukta implies that the universe's origin is an ineffable mystery, suggesting that creation may be a manifestation of Brahman, yet with no clear cause or beginning.

Brahman and the Concept of Lila (Divine Play)

Sanatana Dharma holds that the universe is created out of Brahman, the infinite, formless reality, and that creation is part of lila, or divine play. The concept of lila suggests that creation is not bound by a need or purpose but is a spontaneous, joyful expression of the Divine. In this view, the cosmos is a manifestation of divine energy, expressed through cycles of creation, preservation, and dissolution.

The Brahma Sutras and Upanishads echo this view, asserting that creation is Brahman’s spontaneous play. The Taittiriya Upanishad (2.6.1) says:

"From that (Brahman) sprang space, from space air, from air fire, from fire water, from water earth, from earth herbs, from herbs food, from food seed, and from seed human beings."

This sequence is often interpreted metaphorically, representing the process through which the unmanifested becomes manifest and progressively differentiates into diverse forms of existence.

Cyclic Nature of Creation in Hindu Cosmology

In Sanatana Dharma, creation is cyclical, involving continuous cycles of birth, life, and dissolution. This cycle, known as samsara, is fundamental to Hindu cosmology. The universe is believed to undergo vast cycles called kalpas, governed by Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva as the respective forces of creation, preservation, and dissolution.

·     Maha Yuga: The Puranas describe a grand cycle called a Maha Yuga, comprising four yugas (ages) — Satya, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali. Each yuga has a specific duration and characteristics, and the moral and spiritual quality of existence diminishes progressively through these yugas.

·     Kalpas and Mahakalpas: A day of Brahma, known as a kalpa, consists of a thousand cycles of the four yugas, or one Maha Yuga. At the end of each day, Brahma rests, and the universe temporarily dissolves, only to be recreated with the next day. A full lifespan of Brahma, known as a Mahakalpa, spans 100 such years (divine time) and is followed by a complete dissolution (or Mahapralaya), in which the universe remains in a state of non-manifestation until the next cycle begins.

The Role of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva in Creation

In Hindu cosmology, the trinity — Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva — represents three fundamental aspects of the cosmic process:

·     Brahma is the creator, overseeing the manifestation of the universe at the start of each cycle. He emerges from the cosmic waters on a lotus that arises from Vishnu’s navel, symbolizing the birth of the cosmos from the primordial waters of consciousness.

·     Vishnu is the preserver, maintaining the cosmic order or dharma throughout the universe’s existence. Vishnu’s avatars (incarnations) appear on earth whenever dharma is threatened, restoring balance to creation.

·     Shiva is the destroyer, responsible for the dissolution of the universe at the end of each cycle, known as pralaya. This destruction is not seen as an end but as a necessary process for rebirth, clearing the way for a new creation.

The Bhagavad Gita (10.34) reinforces this idea, showing that creation, preservation, and dissolution are all part of the Divine:

"I am death that carries off all, and I am the origin of things that are yet to be born."

The Cosmic Egg (Hiranyagarbha)

The Hiranyagarbha (Golden Egg or Golden Womb) is a metaphorical concept found in the Rigveda and the Upanishads. It describes the initial form in which Brahman manifests the universe. In this cosmology, the universe emerges from the Hiranyagarbha, much like life forms emerge from an egg, developing within and then bursting forth into a separate, manifest existence.

The Hiranyagarbha Sukta (Rigveda 10.121) describes the Golden Womb as the source of all creation, from which the elements, gods, and life forms arise. The verse states:

"In the beginning was the Golden Womb, born. He was the one born lord of all existence."

This hymn implies that from the unity of the Golden Womb arises all diversity, marking the origin of the cosmic order.

Prakriti and Purusha: The Dual Nature of Reality

The Samkhya philosophy, which is echoed in various Hindu texts, describes creation as the interplay between Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (primordial matter). According to Samkhya, the universe is born when the unmanifested Purusha (the Supreme Self or consciousness) interacts with Prakriti, causing an evolutionary unfolding of reality.

The Bhagavad Gita (13.20) explains:

"Know that both Prakriti and Purusha are without beginning, and know also that all transformations and modes of matter are born of Prakriti."

In this framework, Prakriti is responsible for the material manifestation, while Purusha remains the observer, embodying pure awareness.

Creation as a Manifestation of Maya

Maya is the concept of cosmic illusion, often associated with Shakti (Divine Mother) or the creative power of Brahman. Maya gives rise to the duality and diversity we experience, causing the One to appear as many. According to the Brahma Sutras and Advaita Vedanta philosophy, Maya is neither entirely real nor unreal but an illusion that veils the true, non-dual nature of Brahman.

As Shankara, an Advaita philosopher, interprets: Creation is like a dream or a mirage — real in experience but ultimately unreal when seen in the light of true knowledge of Brahman. The material world, though perceptible, is a projection of the mind, and liberation (moksha) reveals the underlying unity of all existence.

An Eternal and Cyclical Creation

In Sanatana Dharma, the universe does not have a fixed beginning or end but exists within an infinite cycle of creation, preservation, and dissolution. The universe manifests from the unmanifest Brahman, taking shape through the principles of lila (divine play), karma (action), and dharma (righteousness). Creation emerges from Brahman’s inherent nature, exists as a field of experience for souls, and eventually dissolves back into the non-dual reality, only to be reborn again.

This cyclical model reflects the eternal, rhythmic dance of the cosmos, emphasizing that creation is not a one-time event but an unending cosmic symphony through which the Divine reveals itself and all souls eventually return to the source.

Evolution of Sanatana Dharma

Sanatana Dharma, known as the eternal way, has evolved through millennia in an unbroken tradition. Its origins, dating back thousands of years, cannot be precisely pinpointed to a single moment. However, various phases, marked by specific texts, philosophies, and social structures, can be traced to understand its gradual development and transformation.

Here’s an overview of the evolution of Sanatana Dharma, outlined by major periods and developments:

Indus Valley Civilization (circa 3300–1500 BCE)

·        Cultural Foundations: The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations, flourished in what is now Pakistan and northwest India. Archaeological findings, including seals and figurines, indicate early religious practices with symbols like the pashupati (possibly proto-Shiva) and ritual baths, which suggest continuity with later Hindu practices.

·        Absence of Written Scriptures: Although no Vedic texts are from this period, the roots of Sanatana Dharma’s reverence for nature, fertility symbols, and proto-Yogic practices may trace back to this era.

Vedic Period (circa 1500–600 BCE)

·        Rigveda Composition: The Rigveda, composed around 1500 BCE, is the oldest known Vedic text, containing hymns that worship natural forces (devas), like Agni (fire), Indra (thunder), and Varuna (cosmic order). The emphasis was on rituals and sacrifices to maintain cosmic order (rita).

·        Development of Additional Vedas: Other Vedas – Sama, Yajur, and Atharva – were composed after the Rigveda. Together, they formed the core Vedic scriptures, each with specific functions and purposes in ritual practices.

·        Emergence of Priestly Class and Rituals: This period saw the rise of the priestly (Brahmana) class, who performed elaborate rituals (yajnas) for prosperity and cosmic harmony.

Late Vedic Period (circa 800–500 BCE)

·        Composition of Brahmanas and Aranyakas: Texts such as the Brahmanas and Aranyakas were created to explain and interpret the Vedic rituals and their deeper meaning. These writings formed the bridge between ritualism and philosophical inquiry.

·        Rise of Philosophical Thought (Upanishads): The Upanishads, also known as Vedanta (the end of the Vedas), emerged during this period. They shifted focus from external rituals to internal inquiry and introduced the concept of Brahman (the supreme reality) and Atman (the soul), which are central to Hindu philosophy.

·        Ethical and Spiritual Development: This period marked the beginning of a broader ethical and spiritual framework, emphasizing self-knowledge and moksha (liberation) over ritual sacrifice.

Epic and Sutra Period (circa 500 BCE–200 CE)

·        Epics: Mahabharata and Ramayana: Composed between 500 BCE and 200 CE, the Mahabharata (which includes the Bhagavad Gita) and Ramayana expanded Hindu teachings through narratives. They introduced the values of dharma (righteousness) and karma, making Vedic teachings accessible to the general populace.

·        Rise of the Dharma Shastras: Texts such as the Manusmriti outlined social and moral duties based on varna (caste) and ashrama (stages of life), shaping Hindu society’s ethical and social codes.

·        Philosophical Sutras: The Sutra literature emerged, including texts like the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Nyaya Sutras, and Vaisheshika Sutras, systematizing Hindu philosophy and codifying various schools of thought.

Classical Period (circa 200–800 CE)

·        Bhakti and Tantra Movements: This period saw the rise of devotional (bhakti) and tantric traditions. The bhakti movement, advocating personal devotion to a deity, emerged prominently in the south with Tamil Alvar and Nayanar poets.

·        Development of the Six Orthodox Philosophical Schools (Darshanas): These schools – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta – were formalized, each providing unique insights into metaphysics, logic, and spirituality.

·        Spread of Puranas: The Puranas, composed between 300–800 CE, expanded upon earlier myths, stories of gods and goddesses, and cosmology, bringing complex Vedic teachings to a wider audience. Texts like the Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana highlighted devotion to Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess (Shakti).

Medieval Period (circa 800–1700 CE)

·        Advaita Vedanta and Shankara’s Influence: Adi Shankaracharya (circa 8th century) synthesized Advaita Vedanta, emphasizing non-dualism and the unity of Brahman and Atman. His philosophical debates and writings reinvigorated Hindu philosophy.

·        Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita Schools: Ramanuja (circa 11th century) established Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Madhva (circa 13th century) promoted Dvaita (dualism), each offering alternative Vedantic perspectives.

·        Expansion of Bhakti Movement: The bhakti movement spread throughout India, championed by saints like Mirabai, Kabir, Tulsidas, and Guru Nanak. It fostered devotion and unity among people across castes and regions, with a message of universal love and surrender to God.

·        Tantric Traditions and Temples: Tantric practices and temple worship, particularly in the worship of the divine feminine (Shakti), gained prominence, with a focus on both esoteric practices and accessible temple rituals.

Colonial Period (1700–1947 CE)

·        Impact of Colonialism and Reform Movements: Under British rule, Hinduism encountered new challenges and critiques. Reformers like Swami Vivekananda, Dayananda Saraswati (Arya Samaj), and Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Brahmo Samaj) sought to modernize Hinduism, revitalize its spiritual roots, and address social issues such as caste discrimination and child marriage.

·        Rise of Neo-Hinduism and Global Spread: Swami Vivekananda’s presentation at the 1893 World Parliament of Religions introduced Hindu philosophy to the West, sparking global interest. This period also saw the establishment of organizations like the Ramakrishna Mission and Theosophical Society, promoting Hindu teachings internationally.

Post-Independence and Contemporary Period (1947–Present)

·        Modern Hinduism and Global Influence: After India’s independence, Hinduism continued to spread globally, especially through teachers like Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (Transcendental Meditation), Swami Prabhupada (ISKCON), and others. This phase saw Hindu spirituality and practices like yoga and meditation gaining popularity worldwide.

·        Revival of Classical Texts and Hindu Identity: Post-independence India experienced a resurgence in exploring Hindu texts, culture, and philosophical heritage. Institutions dedicated to Vedic studies and Sanskrit were established, contributing to a modern understanding of Hinduism.

·        Current Trends: Today, Hinduism navigates global issues and engages in interfaith dialogue. Movements focused on environmental consciousness, social welfare, and spirituality reflect Hinduism’s adaptability to contemporary concerns.

Summary Timeline of Key Phases

Period	Key Developments
3300–1500 BCE	Indus Valley Civilization, proto-religious practices
1500–600 BCE	Vedic Period, composition of the four Vedas
800–500 BCE	Late Vedic Period, Upanishads and philosophical inquiries
500 BCE–200 CE	Epic and Sutra Period, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Dharma Shastras
200–800 CE	Classical Period, Bhakti and Tantra, Puranas
800–1700 CE	Medieval Period, Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita, Bhakti Movement
1700–1947 CE	Colonial Period, Reform Movements, Neo-Hinduism
1947–Present	Contemporary Period, Global Spread, Modern Hindu Movements

The core principles and teachings of Sanatana Dharma (also known as Hinduism) are broad, emphasizing spiritual, ethical, and philosophical concepts that aim to foster harmony, self-realization, and understanding of the universe. Here’s an overview of its core principles:

Dharma (Righteousness and Moral Order)

·        Concept: Dharma is the foundational principle of living a life in accordance with natural, ethical, and cosmic laws. It involves fulfilling one’s duties, moral responsibilities, and obligations.

·        Scriptural Basis: The Bhagavad Gita emphasizes Svadharma, the duty specific to an individual’s role and nature, which sustains the order of society and individual integrity.

·        Teachings: Dharma varies by context and personal nature (one’s svabhava) and guides individuals to live in harmony with themselves and the world.

Karma (Cause and Effect)

·        Concept: Karma is the law of action and reaction, emphasizing that every action has consequences. It teaches that individuals create their destinies through actions, thoughts, and intentions.

·        Scriptural Basis: The concept of karma is extensively discussed in texts like the Upanishads, the Mahabharata, and the Bhagavad Gita, where Lord Krishna explains that karma binds the soul to the cycle of rebirth, unless done selflessly.

·        Teachings: One’s actions (karma) contribute to spiritual growth or suffering, depending on the intent. Good deeds (actions aligned with Dharma) contribute to favorable outcomes, while negative deeds result in adverse effects.

Moksha (Liberation)

·        Concept: Moksha is the ultimate goal, signifying liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). It is achieved through self-realization and unity with the Divine, transcending desires and ignorance.

·        Scriptural Basis: The Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and other Vedantic texts describe moksha as realizing the soul’s true nature, where it merges with Brahman, the ultimate reality.

·        Teachings: Moksha can be pursued through different paths, like devotion (bhakti), knowledge (jnana), righteous action (karma yoga), or meditation (dhyana). Liberation is seen as the end of all suffering and the attainment of eternal bliss.

Atman and Brahman (The Soul and Universal Consciousness)

·        Concept: Atman is the individual soul, which is divine and eternal. Brahman is the infinite consciousness or absolute reality. Sanatana Dharma teaches that the essence of each individual soul is ultimately non-different from Brahman.

·        Scriptural Basis: The Upanishads, especially the Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads, teach “Tat Tvam Asi” (Thou art That), emphasizing that the Atman is identical to Brahman.

·        Teachings: Recognizing the oneness of Atman and Brahman dissolves the illusion of separateness and leads to liberation (moksha). Realizing this unity is seen as the highest spiritual insight.

Reincarnation and Samsara (Cycle of Birth and Rebirth)

·        Concept: Sanatana Dharma teaches that the soul (atman) is eternal and undergoes a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) until it achieves moksha. The journey of the soul across lives is influenced by karma.

·        Scriptural Basis: The Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads discuss reincarnation, portraying it as a means for the soul to evolve spiritually over multiple lifetimes.

·        Teachings: Understanding samsara encourages individuals to live virtuously and pursue spiritual growth. Reincarnation is seen as an opportunity for the soul to learn, evolve, and ultimately return to its divine source.

Yoga and the Paths to Realization

·        Concept: Yoga, meaning "union," is a comprehensive spiritual discipline that aims to connect the individual soul with the Divine. Sanatana Dharma describes four main paths of yoga:

o   Bhakti Yoga: The path of devotion to God.

o   Jnana Yoga: The path of knowledge and wisdom.

o   Karma Yoga: The path of selfless action.

o   Raja Yoga: The path of meditation and control of the mind.

·        Scriptural Basis: The Bhagavad Gita outlines these paths, affirming that different temperaments and personalities may resonate with different spiritual paths.

·        Teachings: Each path is a valid way to achieve spiritual realization, allowing practitioners to align their practices with their unique nature, eventually leading to self-awareness and liberation.

Ahimsa (Non-violence)

·        Concept: Ahimsa, or non-violence, is a principle of non-harming in thought, word, and deed, encouraging compassion and kindness towards all beings.

·        Scriptural Basis: The Upanishads, the Mahabharata (in the teachings of the sage Vidura), and Jain and Buddhist texts also uphold ahimsa as a fundamental moral code.

·        Teachings: Ahimsa is considered essential for spiritual growth and ethical living. It promotes empathy, respect for life, and harmony with the world, reflecting a commitment to peace.

Acceptance of Diversity (Unity in Diversity)

·        Concept: Sanatana Dharma embraces diverse beliefs, paths, and deities, viewing all spiritual pursuits as valid. It holds that different forms of worship and philosophies are ways to approach the same ultimate reality.

·        Scriptural Basis: The Rigveda expresses this in the phrase, “Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti” (Truth is one, the wise call it by many names).

·        Teachings: This principle fosters tolerance and pluralism, respecting various paths and forms of devotion. It allows individuals to approach the Divine according to personal inclinations and insights.

Balance of the Purusharthas (Four Aims of Life)

·        Concept: Sanatana Dharma prescribes four Purusharthas, or goals, to lead a balanced life:

o   Dharma: Righteousness and duty.

o   Artha: Wealth and prosperity.

o   Kama: Desires and pleasures.

o   Moksha: Liberation and spiritual freedom.

·        Scriptural Basis: The Manusmriti and other Dharma Shastras discuss these as essential aspects of a well-rounded life.

·        Teachings: The Purusharthas guide individuals to fulfill both worldly and spiritual needs, acknowledging human aspirations and leading one toward a balanced, purposeful life.

Respect for Nature (Environmental Harmony)

·        Concept: Sanatana Dharma promotes reverence for nature, considering rivers, trees, animals, and the Earth itself as sacred. This reflects the belief that all life is interconnected and divine.

·        Scriptural Basis: Texts like the Atharvaveda and the Bhagavad Gita advocate for environmental stewardship and respect for all forms of life.

·        Teachings: This reverence fosters ecological responsibility, encouraging sustainable living and respect for the Earth as a manifestation of the Divine.

Summary of Core Principles and Teachings

Sanatana Dharma is a holistic philosophy that emphasizes the unity of the individual with the universal, ethical living, personal responsibility through karma, and the pursuit of liberation (moksha). Its teachings offer a profound respect for diversity, a commitment to non-violence, and guidance on achieving harmony with the world. This framework has fostered a rich, inclusive spiritual tradition that is adaptable yet deeply rooted in eternal principles.

Global Influence of Sanatana Dharma

Sanatana Dharma, or Hinduism, has historically had significant global influence, with ancient roots spreading across Asia, the Middle East, and later beyond. This influence evolved over time, shaping other religions, philosophies, and cultural practices. Here’s a comprehensive timeline showing the global spread and influence of Sanatana Dharma, from its ancient roots to its modern resurgence.

Ancient Period (circa 2000 BCE–500 BCE)

·        Indus Valley Civilization (circa 2000 BCE): Evidence suggests that elements of proto-Hindu practices, including symbols of fertility, reverence for animals, and meditation postures, were present in the Indus Valley Civilization, located in modern-day Pakistan and northwestern India. These practices may have influenced later Hindu rituals and concepts.

·        Expansion into Gandhara and Central Asia (circa 1500 BCE–500 BCE): With the Vedic period (circa 1500 BCE), Sanatana Dharma’s influence began moving into regions that are now Pakistan and Afghanistan, particularly in Gandhara (present-day northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan). These regions served as crossroads for Indian and Persian cultures and later contributed significantly to Buddhist and Hindu artistic traditions.

Late Vedic and Early Epic Period (circa 500 BCE–200 BCE)

·        Cultural Exchange with Persia and Central Asia (circa 500 BCE): Zoroastrianism in Persia and Hindu traditions in India shared linguistic and cultural ties, particularly around the concepts of devas (deities) and asuras. These connections reflect shared heritage, which further evolved in isolation as Zoroastrianism developed in Persia and Vedic practices evolved in India.

·        Silk Road and Hindu Influence (circa 300 BCE): The Silk Road trade routes facilitated cultural exchange between India and Central Asia. These interactions contributed to a blend of Indian, Persian, and Hellenistic influences, eventually fostering the spread of Hindu and Buddhist ideas along the trade networks.

Epic and Early Puranic Period (circa 200 BCE–500 CE)

·        Spread into Southeast Asia (circa 200 BCE–100 CE): Hindu merchants and scholars began traveling to Southeast Asia, spreading Hindu culture, language (Sanskrit), and religion. Local rulers in present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Cambodia adopted Hinduism, integrating it with indigenous practices. This laid the foundation for kingdoms influenced by Hinduism, such as Srivijaya and the Khmer Empire.

·        Greco-Indian Interactions (circa 200 BCE–300 CE): The arrival of Alexander the Great in northwest India and the subsequent Indo-Greek Kingdoms created a fusion of Hellenistic and Indian ideas, evident in Gandhara art, which blended Greek and Hindu iconography. The interaction influenced philosophy, architecture, and sculpture in the region.

·        Emergence of Hinduism in Cambodia and Vietnam (circa 100 CE–500 CE): Hindu temples and the worship of deities like Shiva and Vishnu began to establish roots in Southeast Asia, with prominent examples like the My Son temples in Vietnam, reflecting early Hindu influence.

Classical Period (circa 500–1200 CE)

·        Golden Age of Southeast Asian Hindu Kingdoms (circa 500–1000 CE): Kingdoms like Funan, Champa (Vietnam), Srivijaya (Indonesia), and the Khmer Empire (Cambodia) were profoundly influenced by Hinduism. Kings adopted Hindu titles and claimed divine descent, while temples dedicated to Hindu deities became political and cultural centers. Notable structures include:

o   Angkor Wat (12th century, Cambodia): Originally dedicated to Vishnu, this massive temple complex is one of the most famous symbols of Hindu influence outside India.

o   Prambanan (9th century, Java, Indonesia): A complex of temples dedicated to the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva).

·        Indian Influence in Southern China (circa 700–1000 CE): Through trade and cultural exchange, Hinduism’s influence reached southern China, especially in art, iconography, and ideas on cosmology. Hindu deities like Saraswati and Lakshmi appeared in Buddhist iconography, demonstrating the blending of religious traditions.

Medieval Period (circa 1200–1700 CE)

·        Influence on Sri Lanka and Maldives (circa 1000–1500 CE): Hinduism deeply influenced Sri Lankan culture, seen in the Ramayana traditions and temple worship that continue to the present day. The Maldives also show traces of Hindu influence in linguistic and cultural practices before adopting Islam in the 12th century.

·        Influence on Indonesia and the Fall of Hindu Kingdoms (circa 1300–1600 CE): The Majapahit Empire (1293–1527 CE) in Java was the last major Hindu kingdom in Indonesia. Its rulers were patrons of Hindu culture, producing literary works and temples. After the spread of Islam, Hinduism retreated to the island of Bali, which remains predominantly Hindu today.

·        Spread to Europe through Arab Traders (circa 800–1500 CE): Hindu philosophical ideas, particularly related to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, reached Europe via the Arab world. Concepts like the decimal system, zero, and certain medicinal practices were transmitted from India through Islamic scholars and later to Europe.

Colonial Period (circa 1700–1947 CE)

·        Hinduism Reaches the Western World (circa 18th–19th century): European colonization of India brought Hinduism to the attention of Western scholars. The Bhagavad Gita, Upanishads, and Vedic literature were translated, sparking interest among philosophers like Schopenhauer and Emerson.

·        Spread through Indentured Labor (circa 1830–1900 CE): British colonial powers transported Hindu laborers to colonies in the Caribbean, Mauritius, Fiji, and South Africa. These communities preserved Hindu traditions, which continue to flourish in these regions today.

·        World Parliament of Religions (1893): Swami Vivekananda’s speech at this event introduced Hindu philosophy to the West, creating significant interest in Vedanta and yoga.

Modern Period (1947–Present)

·        Post-Independence Spread (1947–1980s): After India’s independence, Hindu teachers and gurus such as Swami Sivananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and Swami Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON) spread Hindu teachings globally, establishing ashrams and centers in the United States, Europe, and other regions.

·        Growth of Hinduism in the West (1980s–2000s): Yoga and meditation practices, inspired by Hindu teachings, gained massive popularity, often stripped of explicit religious context. Organizations like ISKCON and the Ramakrishna Mission continued to grow, while Hindu festivals like Diwali and Holi became popular in cities worldwide.

·        Modern Hindu Communities Worldwide (2000s–Present): Large Hindu communities now exist in North America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and other countries, where temples, festivals, and organizations serve both religious and cultural roles. Interest in Hindu philosophy has grown among non-Indians, particularly in fields of yoga, Ayurveda, and spirituality.

Summary Timeline of Global Spread

Period	Regions Influenced and Key Developments
2000 BCE–500 BCE	Indus Valley, Gandhara, Central Asia
500 BCE–200 BCE	Persia, Central Asia, Silk Road
200 BCE–500 CE	Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam)
500–1200 CE	Southeast Asia (Srivijaya, Khmer Empire), Southern China
1200–1700 CE	Sri Lanka, Maldives, Indonesia (Majapahit), Europe via Arab scholars
1700–1947 CE	Western Europe, Caribbean, Fiji, South Africa
1947–Present	North America, Europe, Australia, global spread of yoga and Vedanta

Sanatana Dharma, or Hinduism, represents a timeless spiritual tradition that encapsulates profound philosophical insights and ethical principles essential for navigating the complexities of life. Its core teachings, centered around Dharma, Karma, and Moksha, provide individuals with a framework for understanding their responsibilities, the consequences of their actions, and the ultimate goal of spiritual liberation. The interconnectedness of Atman and Brahman emphasizes the inherent unity of all existence, guiding practitioners toward self-realization. The diverse paths of Yoga allow for personal expression in the pursuit of spirituality while fostering an inclusive approach to religious practice. Central to Sanatana Dharma is the commitment to Ahimsa, advocating for non-violence and compassion towards all living beings.

In an era marked by ecological challenges and cultural diversity, the teachings of Sanatana Dharma offer valuable guidance on fostering harmony with nature and embracing respect for different perspectives. By encouraging individuals to live ethically, cultivate self-awareness, and seek connection with the divine, Sanatana Dharma serves as a timeless resource for spiritual growth and moral living. Its emphasis on the pursuit of Moksha addresses the individual quest for meaning and promotes a sense of community and responsibility towards the world, affirming its enduring relevance in today’s global society.

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