Hinduism's early history is the subject of much
debate for a number of reasons.
Firstly, in a strict sense there was no 'Hinduism'
before modern times, although the sources of Hindu traditions are very ancient.
Secondly, Hinduism is not a single religion but
embraces many traditions.
Thirdly, Hinduism has no definite starting point.
The traditions which flow into Hinduism may go back several thousand years and
some practitioners claim that the Hindu revelation is eternal.
Although there is an emphasis on personal
spirituality, Hinduism's history is closely linked with social and political
developments, such as the rise and fall of different kingdoms and empires. The
early history of Hinduism is difficult to date and Hindus themselves tend to be
more concerned with the substance of a story or text rather than its date.
Hindu notions of time
Hindus in general believe that time is cyclical,
much like the four seasons, and eternal rather than linear and bounded. Texts
refer to successive ages (yuga), designated respectively as golden,
silver, copper and iron.
During the golden age people were pious and adhered
to dharma (law, duty, truth) but its power diminishes over time until it
has to be reinvigorated through divine intervention.
With each successive age, good qualities diminish,
until we reach the current iron or dark age (kali yuga) marked by
cruelty, hypocrisy, materialism and so on. Such ideas challenge the widespread,
linear view that humans are inevitably progressing.
Main historical periods
Although the early history of Hinduism is difficult
to date with certainty, the following list presents a rough chronology.
Ø
Before
2000 BCE: The Indus Valley Civilisation
Ø
1500–500
BCE: The Vedic Period
Ø
500
BCE–500 CE: The Epic. Puranic and Classical Age
Ø
500
CE–1500 CE: Medieval Period
Ø
1500–1757
CE: Pre-Modern Period
Ø
1757–1947
CE: British Period
Ø
1947
CE–the present: Independent India
The Indus Valley Civilisation
(before 2000 BCE)
The Indus Valley civilisation was located in the
basin of the river Indus, which flows through present day Pakistan. It had
developed by about 2500 BCE although its origins reach back to the Neolithic
period. It had faded away by 1500 BCE.
The Indus Valley was a developed urban culture akin
to the civilisations of Mesopotamia. Two major cities have been uncovered,
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which has given us the alternative name of Harappan
culture. These cities housed about 40,000 people who enjoyed quite a high
standard of living with sophisticated water systems; most houses having
drainage systems, wells, and rubbish chutes. Grain was the basis of the economy
and large grain stores collected grain as tax.
The civilisation was extensive, from the eastern
foothills of the Himalayas, to Lothar on the Gujarat coast, and to Sutgagen Dor
near the Iranian border. Some cities of the Indus valley culture have yet to be
excavated.
The Indus civilisation did not develop as a result
of contact with other civilisations such as Sumer or Egypt but was an
indigenous development growing out of earlier, local cultures.
Religion in the Indus valley
We know little of the religion, social structure or
politics of this early civilisation and we do not know the language, but seals
have been found with what looks like a script inscribed on them. This has not
been deciphered successfully and some scholars now question whether it is in
fact a script, although this is contentious.
Religion in the Indus valley seems to have involved
temple rituals and ritual bathing in the 'great bath' found at Mohenjo-Daro.
There is some evidence of animal sacrifice at Kalibangan. A number of
terracotta figurines have been found, perhaps goddess images, and a seal
depicting a seated figure surrounded by animals that some scholars thought to
be a prototype of the god Shiva. Others have disputed this, pointing out that
it bears a close resemblance to Elamite seals depicting seated bulls. One
image, carved on soapstone (steatite), depicts a figure battling with lions
which is reminiscent of the Mesopotamian Gilgamesh myth.
There may be continuities between the Indus Valley
civilisation and later Hinduism as suggested by the apparent emphasis on ritual
bathing, sacrifice, and goddess worship. But ritual purity, sacrifice and an
emphasis on fertility are common to other ancient religions.
The Vedic Period (c.1500–c.500
BCE)
There have been two major theories about the early
development of early south Asian traditions.
1. The Aryan migration thesis that the Indus Valley
groups calling themselves 'Aryans' (noble ones) migrated into the sub-continent
and became the dominant cultural force. Hinduism, on this view, derives from
their religion recorded in the Veda along with elements of the indigenous
traditions they encountered.
2. The cultural transformation thesis that Aryan
culture is a development of the Indus Valley culture. On this view there were
no Aryan migrations (or invasion) and the Indus valley culture was an Aryan or
vedic culture.
There are two sources of knowledge about this
ancient period - language and archaeology - and we can make two comments about
them. Firstly, the language of vedic culture was vedic Sanskrit, which is
related to other languages in the Indo-European language group. This suggests
that Indo-European speakers had a common linguistic origin known by scholars as
Proto-Indo-European.
Secondly, there does seem to be archaeological
continuity in the subcontinent from the Neolithic period. The history of this
period is therefore complex. One of the key problems is that no horse remains
have been found in the Indus Valley but in the Veda the horse sacrifice is
central. The debate is ongoing.
Vedic religion
If we take 'Vedic Period' to refer to the period
when the Vedas were composed, we can say that early vedic religion centred
around the sacrifice and sharing the sacrificial meal with each other and with
the many gods (devas). The term 'sacrifice' (homa, yajna)
is not confined to offering animals but refers more widely to any offering into
the sacred fire (such as milk and clarified butter).
Some of the vedic rituals were very elaborate and
continue to the present day. Sacrifice was offered to different vedic gods (devas)
who lived in different realms of a hierarchical universe divided into three
broad realms: earth, atmosphere and sky.
Earth contains the plant god Soma, the fire god
Agni, and the god of priestly power, Brhaspati. The Atmosphere contains the
warrior Indra, the wind Vayu, the storm gods or Maruts and the terrible Rudra.
The Sky contains the sky god Dyaus (from the same root as Zeus), the Lord of
cosmic law (or rta) Varuna, his friend the god of night Mitra, the
nourisher Pushan, and the pervader Vishnu.
The Epic,
Puranic and Classical Age (c.500 BCE–500 CE)
This period, beginning from around the time of
Buddha (died c. 400 BCE), saw the composition of further texts, the Dharma
Sutras and Shastras, the two Epics, the Mahabharata and
the Ramayana, and subsequently thePuranas, containing many of the
stories still popular today. The famous Bhagavad Gita is part of
the Mahabharata.
The idea of dharma (law, duty, truth)
which is central to Hinduism was expressed in a genre of texts known as Dharma
Sutras and Shastras. The Dharma Sutras recognise three sources of dharma:
revelation (i.e. the Veda), tradition (smrti), and good custom. The Laws
of Manu adds 'what is pleasing to oneself'.
During this period the vedic fire sacrifice became
minimised with the development of devotional worship (puja) to
images of deities in temples. The rise of the Gupta Empire (320-500 CE) saw the
development of the great traditions of Vaishnavism (focussed on Vishnu),
Shaivism (focussed on Shiva) and Shaktism (focussed on Devi).
From this period we can recognise many elements in
present day Hinduism, such as bhakti (devotion) and temple
worship. This period saw the development of poetic literature. These texts were
composed in Sanskrit, which became the most important element in a shared
culture.
Medieval
Period (500 CE–1500 CE)
From 500 CE we have the rise of devotion (bhakti)
to the major deities, particularly Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. With the
collapse of the Gupta empire, regional kingdoms developed which patronised
different religions. For example, the Cholas in the South supported Shaivism.
This period saw the development of the great
regional temples such as Jagganatha in Puri in Orissa, the Shiva temple in
Cidambaram in Tamilnadu, and the Shiva temple in Tanjavur, also in Tamilnadu.
All of these temples had a major deity installed there and were centres of
religious and political power.
Poet-saints and gurus
During this time not only religious literature in
Sanskrit developed but also in vernacular languages, particularly Tamil. Here
poet-saints recorded their devotional sentiments. Most notable are the twelve
Vaishnava Alvars (6th–9th centuries), including one famous female poet-saint
called Andal, and the sixty-three Shaiva Nayanars (8th–10th centuries).
Subsequent key thinkers and teachers (acharyas
or gurus) consolidated these teachings. They formulated new
theologies, perpetuated by their own disciplic successions (sampradaya).
Shankara (780–820) travelled widely, defeating
scholars of the unorthodox movements, Buddhism and Jainism, which around the
turn of the millennium had established prominent seats of learning throughout
India. He re-established the authority of the Vedic canon, propagated advaita (monism)
and laid foundations for the further development of the tradition known as the
Vedanta.
Developments in Vaishnavism and
Shaivism
The Vaishnava philosophers Ramanuja (c. 1017–1137),
Madhva (13th cent) and others followed, writing their own scriptural
commentaries, propounding new theologies and establishing their own
successions. Ramanuja qualified Shankara's impersonal philosophy, and Madhva
more strongly propounded the existence of a personal God.
Shaivism similarly developed during this period
with important philosophers such as Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025) writing
commentaries on the Tantras, an alternative revelation to the Veda, and other
texts.
The Tantras became revered as a revelation that
fulfilled or superseded the Veda. Some of these texts advocated ritually
polluting practices such as offering alcohol, meat and ritualised sex to
ferocious deities but most of these texts are simply concerned with daily and
occasional rituals, temple building, cosmology and so on.
The Pre-Modern Period
(c.1500–1757 CE)
Alongside the development of Hindu traditions, most
widespread in the South, was the rise of Islam in the North as a religious and
political force in India. The new religion of Islam reached Indian shores
around the 8th century, via traders plying the Arabian Sea and the Muslim
armies which conquered the northwest provinces.
Muslim political power began with the Turkish
Sultanate around 1200 CE and culminated in the Mughul Empire (from 1526). Akbar
(1542–1605) was a liberal emperor and allowed Hindus to practice freely.
However, his great grandson, Aurangzeb (1618–1707), destroyed many temples and
restricted Hindu practice.
During this period we have further developments in
devotional religion (bhakti). The Sant tradition in the North, mainly in
Maharashtra and the Panjab, expressed devotion in poetry to both a god without
qualities (nirguna) and to a god with qualities (saguna) such as
parental love of his devotees.
The Sant tradition combines elements of bhakti,
meditation or yoga, and Islamic mysticism. Even today the poetry of the
princess Mirabai, and other saints such as Tukaram, Surdas and Dadu are
popular.
British Period (1757–1947 CE)
Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey
(1757) heralded the end of the Mughul Empire and the rise of British supremacy
in India.
At first, the British did not interfere with the
religion and culture of the Indian people, allowing Hindus to practice their
religion unimpeded. Later, however, missionaries arrived preaching
Christianity. Shortly after, the first scholars stepped ashore, and though
initially sympathetic, were often motivated by a desire to westernise the local
population. Chairs of Indology were established in Oxford and other
universities in Europe.
Hindu reformers
The nineteenth century saw the development of the
'Hindu Renaissance' with reformers such as Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) presenting
Hinduism as a rational, ethical religion and founding the Brahmo Samaj to
promote these ideas.
Another reformer, Dayananda Sarasvati (1824–83),
advocated a return to vedic religion which emphasised an eternal, omnipotent
and impersonal God. He wanted to return to the 'eternal law' or sanatana
dharma of Hinduism before the Puranas and Epics through his society,
the Arya Samaj.
Both of these reformers wished to rid Hinduism of
what they regarded as superstition. These groups were instrumental in sowing
the seeds of Indian nationalism and Hindu missionary movements that later
journeyed to the West.
Another important figure was Paramahamsa
Ramakrishna (1836-86), who declared the unity of all religions. His disciple
Vivekananda (1863–1902) developed his ideas and linked them to a political
vision of a united India.
These ideas were developed by Gandhi (1869–1948),
who was instrumental in establishing an independent India. Gandhi, holy man and
politician, is probably the best known Indian of the twentieth century. He
helped negotiate independence, but was bitterly disappointed by the partition of
his country. He was assassinated in 1948.
Gandhi drew much of his strength and conviction
from the Hindu teachings, such as the notion of ahimsa (non-violence),
and propounded a patriotism that was broad-minded and magnanimous.
Hindutva
During the resistance to colonial rule, the term
'Hindu' became charged with cultural and political meaning. One central idea
was hindutva (hindu-ness), coined by V.D. Savarkar to refer to
a socio-political force that could unite Hindus against 'threatening others'.
Cultural organisations such as the RSS (Rashtriya
Svayam-Sevak Sangh) and VHP (Vishva Hindu Parishad) have embraced and developed
this ideal, which found political expression in the BJP (Bharatiya Janata
Party). These sectarian ideas continued after independence.
Independent India (1947
CE–present)
The partition of India in 1947, and the resultant
bloodshed reinforced nationalistic tendencies and specifically notions of India
as 'a Hindu country', and of Hinduism as 'an Indian religion'.
These tendencies have continued and, since then,
communal violence has frequently erupted. In 1992, Hindus were incited to tear
down the Babri mosque in Ayodhya, which they believe was deliberately and
provocatively built over the site of Rama's birth. Tensions have been
exacerbated by attempts to covert Hindus to other religions and reactions by
the continuing hindutva movement.
Identity in the Hindu diaspora
However, the post-war Hindu movements imported into
the west, and wide migration of Hindus, raised questions about the exact nature
of Hindu identity. From the 1960s onwards, many Indians migrated to Britain and
Northern America. Gurus travelled to the West to nurture the fledgling Hindu
communities, sometimes starting missionary movements that attracted Western
interest.
In the late 1960s, Transcendental Meditation
achieved worldwide popularity, attracting the attention of celebrities such as
the Beatles. Perhaps the most conspicuous was the Hare Krishna movement, whose
male followers sported shaved heads and saffron robes.
Many such Western adherents, and casual
practitioners of yoga also, were attracted to the non-sectarian spiritual
aspects of Hinduism. Many Hindu youth in the diaspora have similarly preferred
these universal aspects of Hinduism, standing in tension with its more
political and sectarian elements.
At the end of the millennium, the Hindu communities
became well established abroad, excelling socially, economically and
academically. They built many magnificent temples, such has the Swaminarayan
Temple in London.
Hindus in diaspora were particularly concerned
about the perpetuation of their tradition and felt obliged to respond to Hindu
youth, who sought a rational basis for practices previously passed down by
family custom. They are now particularly concerned about how to deal with
contentious issues such as caste, intermarriage and the position of women.
In many ways, Hindus in the West are turning back to their roots.
